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Antarctic Explorers
Image Right - Jameson Adams, Frank Wild and Eric Marshall (left to right) of the Nimrod Expedition plant the Union flag at their southernmost position.
Please link GENi profiles of people who were involved in Antarctic Exploration to this project.
See also Arctic Explorers
The first land south of the parallel 60° south latitude was discovered by the Englishman William Smith, who sighted Livingston Island on 19 February 1819. A few months later Smith returned to explore the other islands of the South Shetlands archipelago, landed on King George Island, and claimed the new territories for Britain.
The first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various sources three men all sighted the ice shelf or the continent within days or months of each other: Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy; Edward Bransfield, a captain in the Royal Navy; and Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut.
The expedition led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on the ships Vostok and Mirny reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Princess Martha Coast on 28 January 1820 and recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W. It became known as the Fimbul ice shelf. Bransfield sighted Trinity Peninsula on 30 January 1820 - the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland, while Palmer sighted the mainland in the area south of Trinity Peninsula in November 1820. Von Bellingshausen's expedition also discovered Peter I Island and Alexander I Island, the first islands to be discovered south of the circle.
British explorer James Cook was one of the few explorers that travelled to the Antarctic region. The discoveries of his second voyage (1772–1775) changed the global map. Before his expedition it was believed that a large continent known as Terra Australis occupied majority of the Southern hemisphere. However, Cook discovered that no such land mass existed though massive ice floes prevented his reaching Antarctica proper.
He speculated that based upon the amount of ice, there must be an originating land mass. Subsequent exploration of the Southern regions of the world came to a great halt until interest arose again between 1819 and 1843. As Europe settled after a period of revolution, war, and unrest, explorers Bellingshausen, Biscoe, Balleny, Wilkes, Dumont D'Urville, and James Clark Ross looked for more information about the Antarctic regions.
The primary goal of these explorers was to penetrate the ice walls that hid Antarctica proper, beginning with Bellingshausen's circumnavigation of the region, D'Urville's discovery of the first rocky land formation, and culminating in Wilke's discovery of Victoria Land, featuring the volcanoes now known as Mt. Terror and Mt. Erebus. These explorers, despite their impressive contributions to South Polar exploration, were unable to penetrate the interior of the continent and, rather, formed a broken line of discovered lands along the coastline of Antarctica.
What followed this period of Antarctic interest is what historian H.R. Mill called 'the age of averted interest'. [Fogg, G.E. (2000). The Royal Society and the Antarctic. London, The Royal Society: Notes and Records of the Royal Society London, Vol. 54, No. 1.] Following the expedition South by the ships Erebus and Terror under James Clark Ross (January, 1841), he suggested that there were no scientific discoveries, or 'problems', worth exploration in the far South. It is considered that Ross' influence, as well as the loss of the Franklin expedition in the Arctic, led to disinterest in polar exploration, particularly by The Royal Society: the British founded organisation that helped oversee many Arctic explorations, including those that would be made by Shackleton and Scott.
The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration began at the end of the 19th century and closed with Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, the survivors stepping ashore in Wellington, New Zealand February 9th 1917.
During World War II the Antarctic continent became the focus of an international effort that resulted in intensive scientific and geographical exploration and in which 17 major Antarctic expeditions were launched from ten countries. The common factor in these expeditions was the limited nature of the resources available to them before advances in transport and communication technologies revolutionised the work of exploration. This meant that each expedition became a feat of endurance that tested its personnel to physical and mental limits, and sometimes beyond. The "heroic" label, bestowed later, recognised the adversities which had to be overcome by these pioneers, some of whom did not survive the experience; during this period 19 expedition members died.
The explorers of this age are not remembered merely as scientists and sailors; these men are remembered also as poets, photographers and artists. Ernest Shackleton is often considered the greatest poet of all the Antarctic explorers. His poem 'A Tale of the Sea' is reminiscent of Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner, though Murray, Scott, Amundsen and many others have made notable contributions to Antarctic literature and art.
List of Arctic Expeditions
Expeditions, 1897–1922
- 1897–99; Country - Belgium - Belgian Antarctic Expedition. Ship Belgica Leader - Adrien de Gerlache
This was the first expedition to overwinter within the Antarctic Circle, after the ship was icebound in the Bellingshausen Sea. It collected the first annual cycle of Antarctic observations. It also reached 71°30'S, and discovered the Gerlache Strait. First Mate Roald Amundsen later led the first arrival at the South Pole, in 1911.
- 1898–1900 Country - UK - British Antarctic Expedition 1898 (Southern Cross Expedition). Ship Southern Cross. Leader Carsten Borchgrevink
The first expedition to overwinter on the Antarctic mainland (Cape Adare), it was the first to make use of dogs and sledges. It made the first ascent of The Great Ice Barrier, and set a Farthest South record at 78°30'S. It also calculated the location of the South Magnetic Pole.
- 1901–04; Country - UK - National Antarctic Expedition 1901 (Discovery Expedition). Ships Discovery, Morning (relief ship) and Terra Nova (relief ship). Leader Robert Falcon Scott
It made the first ascent of the Western Mountains in Victoria Land, and discovered the polar plateau. Its southern journey set a new Farthest South record, 82°17'S. Many other geographical features were discovered, mapped and named. This was the first of several expeditions based in McMurdo Sound.
- 1901–03; Country - Germany - First German Antarctic Expedition (Gauss Expedition). Ship Gauss Leader Erich von Drygalski
The first expedition to investigate eastern Antarctica, it discovered the coast of Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, and Mount Gauss. The expedition's ship became trapped in ice, which prevented more extensive exploration.
- 1901–03; Country - Sweden - Swedish Antarctic Expedition. Ship Antarctic Leader Otto Nordenskiöld
This expedition worked in the east coastal area of Graham Land, and was marooned on Snow Hill Island and Paulet Island in the Weddell Sea, after the sinking of its expedition ship. It was rescued by the Argentinian naval vessel Uruguay.
- 1902–04; Country - UK - Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. Ship Scotia Leader William Speirs Bruce
The permanent Orcadas weather station in South Orkney Islands was established. The Weddell Sea was penetrated to 74°01'S, and the coastline of Coats Land was discovered, defining the sea's eastern limits.
- 1903–05 Country - France - Third French Antarctic Expedition. Ship - Français. Leader - Jean-Baptiste Charcot
Originally intended as a relief expedition for the stranded Nordenskiöld party, the main work of this expedition was the mapping and charting of islands and the western coasts of Graham Land, on the Antarctic peninsula. A section of the coast was explored, and named Loubet Land after the President of France.
- 1907–09; Country - UK - British Antarctic Expedition 1907 (Nimrod Expedition) Ship - Nimrod Leader Ernest Shackleton
The first expedition led by Shackleton. Based in McMurdo Sound, it pioneered the Beardmore Glacier route toward the South Pole, and the (limited) use of motorised transport. Its southern march reached 88°23'S, a new Farthest South record 97 geographical miles from the Pole. The Northern Party reached the location of the South Magnetic Pole.
- 1908–10; Country - France - Fourth French Antarctic Expedition Ship Pourquoi-Pas? IV Leader - Jean-Baptiste Charcot
This continued the work of the earlier French expedition with a general exploration of the Bellingshausen Sea, and the discovery of islands and other features, including Marguerite Bay, Charcot Island, Renaud Island, Mikkelsen Bay, Rothschild Island.
- 1910–12; Country - Japan - Japanese Antarctic Expedition. Ship - Kainan Maru Leader - Nobu Shirase
The first non-European Antarctic expedition carried out a coastal exploration of King Edward VII Land, and investigated the eastern sector of the Great Ice Barrier, reaching 80°5'S.
- 1910–12; Country - Norway - Amundsen's South Pole expedition. Ship - Fram Leader - Roald Amundsen
First to the South Pole: Amundsen set up camp on the Great Ice Barrier, at the Bay of Whales. He discovered a new route to the polar plateau via the Axel Heiberg Glacier. A party of five led by Amundsen reached the South Pole via this route on 14 December 1911.
- 1910–13; Country - UK - British Antarctic Expedition 1910 (Terra Nova Expedition). Ship Terra Nova Leader Robert Falcon Scott
Scott's last expedition, based like his first in McMurdo Sound. Scott and four companions reached the South Pole via the Beardmore route on 17 January 1912, 33 days after Amundsen. All five died on the return journey from the Pole, through a combination of starvation and cold.
- 1911–13; Country - Germany - Second German Antarctic Expedition, Ship - Deutschland Leader Wilhelm Filchner
The objective was the first crossing of Antarctica. The expedition made the southernmost Weddell Sea penetration to date, reaching 77°45'S, and discovering Luitpold Coast, Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, and Vahsel Bay. It failed to establish a shore base from which to mount its transcontinental march, and after a long drift in the Weddell Sea pack ice it returned to South Georgia.
- 1911–14; Country - Australia and New Zealand - Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Ship Aurora Leader - Douglas Mawson
The expedition concentrated on the stretch of Antarctic coastline between Cape Adare and Mount Gauss, carrying out mapping and survey work on coastal and inland territories. Discoveries included Commonwealth Bay, Ninnis Glacier, Mertz Glacier, and Queen Mary Land.
- 1914–17; Country - UK - Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Ship - Endurance Leader - Ernest Shackleton
Another transcontinental crossing attempt. It failed to land the Weddell Sea shore party after Endurance was trapped and crushed in ice. The expedition then rescued itself after a series of exploits, including a prolonged drift on an ice-floe, Shackleton's open boat journey, and the first crossing of South Georgia.
- 1914–17 Country - UK - Ross Sea party In support of Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Ship Aurora. Leader - Aeneas Mackintosh
Its objective was to lay depots across the Great Ice Barrier, to supply the party crossing from the Weddell Sea. All the required depots were laid, but in the process three men, including the leader Mackintosh, lost their lives.
- 1921–22; country - UK - Shackleton–Rowett Expedition. Ship 'Quest Leader Ernest Shackleton
Vaguely defined objectives included coastal mapping, a possible continental circumnavigation, the investigation of sub-Antarctic islands, and oceanographic work. After Shackleton's death on 5 January 1922, Quest completed a shortened programme before returning home.
Expedition deaths during the Heroic Age
Nineteen men died on Antarctic expeditions during the Heroic Age. Of these, four died of illnesses unrelated to their Antarctic experiences, and two died from accidents in New Zealand. The remaining 13 perished during service on or near the Antarctic continent.
(Name Country Date of death Place of death Cause)
- Carl August Wiencke Norway 22 January 1898 South Shetland Islands - Washed overboard and drowned
- Émile Danco Belgium 5 June 1898 Bellingshausen Sea Heart disease
- Nicolai Hansen Norway 14 October 1899 Cape Adare, Antarctica Intestinal disorder
- Charles Bonnor UK 2 December 1901 Lyttelton Harbour, New Zealand Fall from ship's mast
- George Vince UK 11 March 1902 Ross Island, Antarctica Slip over ice precipice
- Allan Ramsey UK 6 August 1903 South Orkney Islands Heart disease
- Edgar Evans UK 17 February 1912 Beardmore Glacier, Antarctica Head injury, starvation, and cold
- Lawrence Oates UK 17 March 1912 Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica Starvation and cold
- Robert Falcon Scott UK 29 March 1912 Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica Starvation and cold
- Edward Wilson UK 29 March 1912 Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica Starvation and cold
- Henry Bowers UK 29 March 1912 Great Ice Barrier, Antarctica Starvation and cold
- Robert Brissenden UK 17 August 1912 Admiralty Bay, New Zealand Drowning
- Richard Vahsel Germany 8 August 1912 Weddell Sea Syphilis
- Belgrave Ninnis UK 14 December 1912 King George V Land, Antarctica Fall into crevasse
- Xavier Mertz Switzerland 7 January 1913 King George V Land, Antarctica Hypervitaminosis
- Arnold Spencer-Smith UK 9 March 1916 Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica Cold and scurvy
- Aeneas Mackintosh UK 8 May 1916 McMurdo Sound, Antarctica Fall through sea ice
- Victor Hayward UK 8 May 1916 McMurdo Sound, Antarctica Fall through sea ice
- Ernest Shackleton UK 5 January 1922 South Georgia Heart disease
Another five men died shortly after returning from the Antarctic (this does not include the significant number who died on active service in the First World War):
- Engebret Knudsen, a member of the Belgian Antarctic Expedition, 1887–99, developed signs of mental illness and never fully recovered, died in 1900.
- Harlof Klovstad, medical officer on the Southern Cross Expedition, 1898–1900, died of unrecorded causes during 1900.
- Jorgen Petersen, First Mate on the Southern Cross, died in 1900 while returning in the ship from Australia.
- Bertram Armytage, a member of the Nimrod Expedition, 1907–09, died of self-inflicted gunshot wounds, 12 March 1910.
- Hjalmar Johansen, a member of Amundsen's 1910–12 expedition, died of self-inflicted gunshot wounds, 9 January 1913.[82]
Sources and References
- http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/History/expl...
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Antarctica
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic
Polar Explorers
This list is for recognised pioneering explorers of the polar regions. It does not include subsequent travellers and expeditions. Over time they can be split into Arctic and Antarctic Explorers. See Arctic Explorers Project
- Jameson Adams
- Stian Aker
- Roald Amundsen
- Salomon August Andrée
- Piotr Fyodorovich Anjou
- Josée Auclair
- Ann Bancroft
- Willem Barents
- Michael Barne
- Robert Bartlett
- Fabian von Bellingshausen
- Olav Bjaaland
- Carsten Borchgrevink
- Jon Bowermaster
- Henry Robertson Bowers
- Louise Boyd
- Edward Bransfield
- William Speirs Bruce
- Daniel Byles
- Richard Evelyn Byrd
- Todd Carmichael
- Umberto Cagni
- Jacques Cartier
- Semion Chelyuskin
- Apsley Cherry-Garrard
- Jeremy Clarkson
- George Comer
- Sebastian Copeland
- Frederick A. Cook
- James Cook
- Henry Cookson
- Tom Crean
- Francis Crozier
- Edgeworth David
- Jason De Carteret
- Edwin de Haven
- George J. Dufek
- Jules Dumont d'Urville
- Lincoln Ellsworth
- Edward Evans
- Edgar Evans
- Sir Ranulph Fiennes
- John Franklin
- Peter Freuchen
- Martin Frobisher
- Vivian Fuchs
- Tobias Furneaux
- Adrien de Gerlache
- Adolphus Greely
- Pen Hadow
- Charles Francis Hall
- Helmer Hanssen
- Bernhard Hantzsch
- Sverre Hassel
- Adrian Hayes
- Isaac Israel Hayes
- Samuel Hearne
- Matthew A. Henson
- Matthew Henson
- Wally Herbert
- Alex Hibbert
- Edmund Hillary
- John Hornby
- Henry Hudson
- Edward Israel
- Antony Jinman
- Erling Kagge
- Elisha Kent Kane
- Sydney L. Kirkby
- Gerald Ketchum
- Paul Landry
- Khariton Laptev
- Christian Leden
- Ernest de Koven Leffingwell
- Alistair Mackay
- Alexander MacKenzie
- Cecil Madigan
- Rune Malterud
- Donal T. Manahan
- Albert Hastings Markham
- Eric Marshall
- Douglas Mawson
- Francis Leopold McClintock
- Jim McNeill
- Janice Meek
- Fridtjof Nansen
- George Nares
- Edward W Nelson
- Umberto Nobile
- Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld
- Børge Ousland
- Nathaniel Palmer
- William Parry
- Charlie Paton
- Robert Edwin Peary
- Eric Philips
- Ralph Plaisted
- Richard Profit
- Lewis Gordon Pugh
- Emil Racovita
- John Rae
- Knud Rasmussen
- Andrew Regan
- George W. Rice
- John Richardson
- Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen
- Alfred Ritscher
- Edith Ronne
- Finn Ronne
- James Clark Ross
- John Ross
- Yakov Sannikov
- Otto Schmidt
- William Scoresby
- Robert Falcon Scott
- Georgy Sedov
- Ernest Shackleton
- Nobu Shirase
- Paul Siple
- Will Steger
- Otto Sverdrup
- Robert Swan
- Boris Vilkitsky
- Richard Weber
- James Weddell
- Walter Wellman
- Frank Wild
- Hubert Wilkins
- Oscar Wisting
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