Arrival: Passenger List - Emmy Noether, 31 Oct - 6 Nov 1933, Bremen to New York (Media)
Arrival: Passenger List - Emmi Noether, 20-30 Sept 1934, Hamburg to New York (Media)

Death: Pennsylvania Death Index - Emmy Noether, 14 April 1935 (Media)
Obituary: Emmy Noether - Obituary by Albert Einstein, New York Times, May 4, 1935, p.12.
The late Emmy Noether; Professor Einstein Writes in Appreciation of a Fellow-Mathematician.
https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Obituaries/Noether_Emmy_Einst...

Biography: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_Noether#Death
https://theconversation.com/emmy-noether-faced-sexism-and-nazism-10...
Photographs: "Noether", Oberwolfach, Germany: MFO https://opc.mfo.de/search?term=noether

Wikipedia biography:
"...Amalie Emmy Noether (23 March 1882 – 14 April 1935) was an influential German mathematician known for her groundbreaking contributions to abstract algebra and theoretical physics. Described by David Hilbert, Albert Einstein and others as the most important woman in the history of mathematics, she revolutionized the theories of rings, fields, and algebras. In physics, Noether's theorem explains the fundamental connection between symmetry and conservation laws.

She was born to a Jewish family in the Bavarian town of Erlangen; her father was the mathematician Max Noether. Emmy originally planned to teach French and English after passing the required examinations, but instead studied mathematics at the University of Erlangen, where her father lectured. After completing her dissertation in 1907 under the supervision of Paul Gordan, she worked at the Mathematical Institute of Erlangen without pay for seven years (at the time women were largely excluded from academic positions). In 1915, she was invited by David Hilbert and Felix Klein to join the mathematics department at the University of Göttingen, a world-renowned center of mathematical research. The philosophical faculty objected, however, and she spent four years lecturing under Hilbert's name. Her habilitation was approved in 1919, allowing her to obtain the rank of Privatdozent. Noether remained a leading member of the Göttingen mathematics department until 1933; her students were sometimes called the "Noether boys". In 1924, Dutch mathematician B. L. van der Waerden joined her circle and soon became the leading expositor of Noether's ideas: her work was the foundation for the second volume of his influential 1931 textbook, Moderne Algebra. By the time of her plenary address at the 1932 International Congress of Mathematicians in Zürich, her algebraic acumen was recognized around the world. The following year, Germany's Nazi government dismissed Jews from university positions, and Noether moved to the United States to take up a position at Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania. In 1935 she underwent surgery for an ovarian cyst and, despite signs of a recovery, died four days later at the age of 53.

Noether's mathematical work has been divided into three "epochs".] In the first (1908–1919), she made significant contributions to the theories of algebraic invariants and number fields. Her work on differential invariants in the calculus of variations, Noether's theorem, has been called "one of the most important mathematical theorems ever proved in guiding the development of modern physics". In the second epoch, (1920–1926), she began work that "changed the face of [abstract] algebra". In her classic paper Idealtheorie in Ringbereichen (Theory of Ideals in Ring Domains, 1921) Noether developed the theory of ideals in commutative rings into a powerful tool with wide-ranging applications. She made elegant use of the ascending chain condition, and objects satisfying it are named Noetherian in her honor. In the third epoch, (1927–1935), she published major works on noncommutative algebras and hypercomplex numbers and united the representation theory of groups with the theory of modules and ideals. In addition to her own publications, Noether was generous with her ideas and is credited with several lines of research published by other mathematicians, even in fields far removed from her main work, such as algebraic topology..."

"...Emmy's father, Max Noether, was descended from a family of wholesale traders in Germany. He had been paralyzed by poliomyelitis at the age of fourteen. He regained mobility, but one leg remained affected. Largely self-taught, he was awarded a doctorate from the University of Heidelberg in 1868. After teaching there for seven years, he took a position in the Bavarian city of Erlangen, where he met and married Ida Amalia Kaufmann, the daughter of a prosperous merchant. Max Noether's mathematical contributions were to algebraic geometry mainly, following in the footsteps of Alfred Clebsch. His best known results are the Brill–Noether theorem and the residue, or AF+BG theorem; several other theorems are associated with him, including Max Noether's theorem.

Emmy Noether was born on 23 March 1882, the first of four children. Her first name was "Amalie", after her mother and paternal grandmother, but she began using her middle name at a young age. As a girl, she was well liked. She did not stand out academically although she was known for being clever and friendly. Emmy was near-sighted and talked with a minor lisp during childhood. A family friend recounted a story years later about young Emmy quickly solving a brain teaser at a children's party, showing logical acumen at that early age. Emmy was taught to cook and clean, as were most girls of the time, and she took piano lessons. She pursued none of these activities with passion, although she loved to dance.

She had three younger brothers. The eldest, Alfred, was born in 1883, was awarded a doctorate in chemistry from Erlangen in 1909, but died nine years later. Fritz Noether, born in 1884, is remembered for his academic accomplishments: after studying in Munich he made a reputation for himself in applied mathematics. The youngest, Gustav Robert, was born in 1889. Very little is known about his life; he suffered from chronic illness and died in 1928..."

"...Although Noether's theorem had a profound effect upon physics, among mathematicians she is best remembered for her seminal contributions to abstract algebra. As Nathan Jacobson says in his Introduction to Noether's Collected Papers

The development of abstract algebra, which is one of the most distinctive innovations of twentieth century mathematics, is largely due to her – in published papers, in lectures, and in personal influence on her contemporaries..."

"...When Adolf Hitler became the German Reichskanzler in January 1933, Nazi activity around the country increased dramatically. At the University of Göttingen the German Student Association led the attack on the "un-German spirit" attributed to Jews and was aided by a privatdozent named Werner Weber, a former student of Emmy Noether. Antisemitic attitudes created a climate hostile to Jewish professors. One young protester reportedly demanded: "Aryan students want Aryan mathematics and not Jewish mathematics."..."

"...As dozens of newly unemployed professors began searching for positions outside of Germany, their colleagues in the United States sought to provide assistance and job opportunities for them. Albert Einstein and Hermann Weyl were appointed by the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, while others worked to find a sponsor required for legal immigration. Noether was contacted by representatives of two educational institutions, Bryn Mawr College in the United States and Somerville College at the University of Oxford in England. After a series of negotiations with the Rockefeller Foundation, a grant to Bryn Mawr was approved for Noether and she took a position there, starting in late 1933..."

"...Noether's work continues to be relevant for the development of theoretical physics and mathematics and she consistently is ranked as one of the greatest mathematicians of the twentieth century. In his obituary, fellow algebraist B. L. van der Waerden says that her mathematical originality was "absolute beyond comparison",] and Hermann Weyl said that Noether "changed the face of algebra by her work". During her lifetime and even until today, Noether has been characterized as the greatest woman mathematician in recorded history by mathematicians such as Pavel Alexandrov, Hermann Weyl, and Jean Dieudonné.

In a letter to The New York Times (May 4, 1935), Albert Einstein wrote:

"In the judgment of the most competent living mathematicians, Fräulein Noether was the most significant creative mathematical genius thus far produced since the higher education of women began. In the realm of algebra, in which the most gifted mathematicians have been busy for centuries, she discovered methods which have proved of enormous importance in the development of the present-day younger generation of mathematicians..."
https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Obituaries/Noether_Emmy_Einst...

SOURCE: Wikipedia contributors, 'Emmy Noether', Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 6 February 2012, 07:49 UTC, <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emmy_Noether&oldid=475358460> [accessed 13 February 2012]

אמי נֶתֶר

' (בגרמנית: Emmy Noether‏; 23 במרץ 1882, ארלנגן, ממלכת בוואריה, הקיסרות הגרמנית – 14 באפריל 1935, ברין מאר, פנסילבניה) הייתה מתמטיקאית ופיזיקאית יהודייה-גרמנייה. נתר הייתה תלמידה ועמיתה של דויד הילברט ולימדה באוניברסיטת גטינגן, שהייתה המרכז המתמטי החשוב בעולם, עד עליית הנאצים לשלטון בגרמניה ב-1933.

בזכות תרומתה לאלגברה ולפיזיקה תאורטית, ובעיקר בזכות הרעיונות שפיתחה בתורת החוגים, נתר ידועה כאחת המתמטיקאיות החשובות מאז ומעולם. סיפורה שזור מאבקים בממסד הגברי של אותה עת, והיא הפכה למודל לחיקוי עבור מדעניות רבות.

תוכן עניינים 1 חייה 2 עבודתה והיחס אליה 3 הוקרה והנצחה 4 לקריאה נוספת 5 קישורים חיצוניים 6 הערות שוליים חייה עמליֶה אמי נתר (Amalie Emmy Noether) נולדה בארלנגן שבממלכת בוואריה, גרמניה, הבכורה במשפחה יהודית בת שלושה ילדים. אביה, מקס נתר, מתמטיקאי חשוב בזכות עצמו, עבד כפרופסור באוניברסיטת ארלנגן (לימים אמר אדמונד לנדאו שבעיניו לא אמי היא בתו של מקס נתר - אלא להפך, מקס הוא אביה של אמי, שהיא "ראשית הצירים" של משפחת נתר).

בגיל צעיר לא הראתה נתר נטייה מיוחדת למתמטיקה, וכבת עשרה התעניינה יותר במוזיקה ובריקוד. בגיל צעיר התכוונה להיות מורה לשפות, ובגיל 18 הייתה למורה מורשית לאנגלית ולצרפתית.

על אף שאוניברסיטת ארלנגן לא הרשתה לנשים להירשם ללימודים, נתר הורשתה לשבת בשיעורים. ב-1904, כאשר החלה האוניברסיטה לקבל נשים ללימודים, נרשמה נתר מיד ללימודי מתמטיקה. היא קיבלה תואר דוקטור ב-1907 בהנחייתו של פאול גורדן (Gordan), ובנתה לעצמה שם בעבודותיה בתורת השמורות הפולינומיות. על-פי הנוהג באקדמיה הגרמנית, מסיימי הדוקטורט נדרשו לכתוב עבודה מקיפה נוספת, הביליטציה. כאישה, היה מסלול זה סגור בפני נתר, והיא בילתה כמה שנים באוניברסיטאות מדרג שני, והעמיקה במיזוג שיטתו הקונקרטית של גורדן בתחום השמורות עם שיטתו המופשטת יותר של דויד הילברט, שהפכה תחת ידה לכלי רב-עוצמה.

ב-1915 הזמינו אותה הילברט ופליקס קליין לאוניברסיטת גטינגן. באותה שנה גילתה את אחד העקרונות החשובים בפיזיקה תאורטית: השקילות בין סימטריות וחוקי השימור, הקרויה על שמה "משפט נתר". בהיותה אישה, האוניברסיטה סירבה לאפשר לה ללמד, עד שהילברט עצמו נאלץ לפרסם תחת שמו את הקורסים שהעבירה. יריביה טענו נגדה שהחיילים שישובו הביתה ממלחמת העולם לא יוכלו לקבל את מרותה כמרצה. קבלתה לסגל הייתה גוררת גם מתן זכות בחירה לנתר בסנאט האוניברסיטה. על-כך אמר הילברט בזעף: "אינני רואה כיצד מין המועמד עשוי לשמש נגדו בקבלתו למשרת מרצה. אחרי הכול, סנאט האוניברסיטה איננו בית מרחץ". לבסוף, ב-1919, היא התקבלה לסגל האוניברסיטה.

בשנות ה-20 עברה לעסוק בתורת החוגים, ופיתחה את החוגים הנתריים הקרויים על שמה. ספרו רב ההשפעה של ברטל ליינדרט ואן דר ורדן "אלגברה מודרנית" (1924) מבוסס על הרצאותיה. ב-1927 עבדה עם ריכרד בראוור והלמוט הסה, והשלושה הוכיחו יחדיו את משפט אלברט-בראוור-הסה-נתר (אדריאן אלברט הגיע לאותן תוצאות במקביל, בארצות הברית).

ב-1933, לאחר עליית הנאצים לשלטון, ברחה נתר מגרמניה, לאחר שהחוק לשיקום שירות המדינה המקצועי אסר עליה להמשיך ללמד. היא הצטרפה לסגל מכללת ברין מאר (Bryn Mawr College) בארצות הברית, שם נפטרה ב-14 באפריל 1935 בעקבות ניתוח פשוט שהסתבך.[1] רופאהּ אמר לה שהיא זקוקה לניתוח, והיא קבעה תור אליו באחת החופשות מן המכללה, מבלי לומר דבר לאיש; היא נפטרה בגיל 53.

נתר לא נישאה מעולם.

עבודתה והיחס אליה

גלויה ששלחה נתר לאחד מעמיתיה בשנת 1915, ובה דיון בנושא מתורת החוגים נתר הוכיחה את משפטי האיזומורפיזם, משפט חשוב בתורת החבורות שלפיו חבורות מנה מסוימות איזומורפיות זו לזו. היא תרמה רבות לתחומים במתמטיקה, הוכיחה הכללה למשפט לסקר-נתר והגתה את בעיית נתר.

נתר השפיעה בצורה משמעותית גם על הפיזיקה. משפט נתר מראה את הקשר בין מונח הסימטריה בפיזיקה לחוקי השימור, כגון חוק שימור החומר וחוק שימור המטען החשמלי. חוק זה הוכח במסגרת מחקר של בעיות בתורת היחסות הכללית. חשיבותו היא בקישור בין משפטי השימור החשובים והיסודיים באמירה שהם נובעים מסיבה אחת - הסימטריה, מה עוד שההנחה המקובלת היא שחוקים אלו אינם תלויים במרחב-זמן.

למרות האפליה, זכתה נתר ליחס של כבוד מצדם של גדולי המתמטיקאים והמדענים של התקופה. אלברט איינשטיין תיאר אותה כ"גאון המתמטי המשמעותי היצירתי ביותר שבא לעולם מאז שנשים התחילו לזכות בחינוך גבוה". כאמור, דויד הילברט ואדמונד לנדאו העריכו את עבודתה מאוד, אף על פי שלנדאו עדיין לא השתחרר מהתחושה שגברים מסוגלים להצליח במתמטיקה יותר מנשים, ושנתר היא יוצאת דופן: "אני יכול להעיד ש[%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%A8] מתמטיקאית גדולה, באשר להיותה אישה איני יכול להישבע."

הוקרה והנצחה על שמה קרויים חוג נתרי, אינדוקציה נתרית, ומודול נתרי. שמה ומורשתה של אמי נתר הונצחו במכון המחקר למתמטיקה ע"ש אמי נתר באוניברסיטת בר-אילן.[2] על שמה נקרא "מכתש נתר" על הירח.[3] על שמה קרוי פרס נתר (אנ') מטעם איגוד הנשים במתמטיקה (אנ'). לקריאה נוספת סיימון סינג, המשפט האחרון של פרמה, עמ' 138–139 מריו ליביו, שפת הסימטריה, עמ' 238–239 מרכוס דו סוטוי, המוזיקה של המספרים הראשונים, עמ' 283 איתי נבו, ‏המורה לצרפתית ששינתה את פני המתמטיקה , במדור "היום לפני במדע " באתר של מכון דוידסון לחינוך מדעי, 23 במרץ 2017 קישורים חיצוניים ויקישיתוף מדיה וקבצים בנושא אמי נתר בוויקישיתוף אמי נתר , באתר פרויקט הגנאלוגיה במתמטיקה אמי נתר , באתר MacTutor (באנגלית) דברים שכתב לזכרה אלברט איינשטיין , ניו יורק טיימס, 5 במאי 1935 (באנגלית) ליין זונדרס מאק, אמי נתר , באנציקלופדיה לנשים יהודיות (באנגלית) אבי בליזובסקי, ‏אמי נתר – מניחת התשתית לאלגברה המודרנית , באתר "הידען", ‏23 במרץ 2015 הסבר על ה"דודל"

(שרבוט גוגל) שהכינה גוגל לציון יום הולדתה ה-133 של נתר (באנגלית), 23 במרץ 2015 אמי נתר: המתמטיקאית היהודייה ששינתה את העולם , באתר הספרייה הלאומית אושי דרמן, סיפור האפליה של המתמטיקאית הגדולה בהיסטוריה , בלוג באתר בית התפוצות, יולי 2019 אמי נתר , באתר "Find a Grave" (באנגלית) https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%A8

---------------------------

Wikipedia Biographical Summary:

"...Amalie Emmy Noether (German: [%CB%88n%C3%B8%CB%90t%C9%90]; 23 March 1882 – 14 April 1935) was an influential German mathematician known for her groundbreaking contributions to abstract algebra and theoretical physics. Described by David Hilbert, Albert Einstein and others as the most important woman in the history of mathematics, she revolutionized the theories of rings, fields, and algebras. In physics, Noether's theorem explains the fundamental connection between symmetry and conservation laws.

She was born to a Jewish family in the Bavarian town of Erlangen; her father was the mathematician Max Noether. Emmy originally planned to teach French and English after passing the required examinations, but instead studied mathematics at the University of Erlangen, where her father lectured. After completing her dissertation in 1907 under the supervision of Paul Gordan, she worked at the Mathematical Institute of Erlangen without pay for seven years (at the time women were largely excluded from academic positions). In 1915, she was invited by David Hilbert and Felix Klein to join the mathematics department at the University of Göttingen, a world-renowned center of mathematical research. The philosophical faculty objected, however, and she spent four years lecturing under Hilbert's name. Her habilitation was approved in 1919, allowing her to obtain the rank of Privatdozent. Noether remained a leading member of the Göttingen mathematics department until 1933; her students were sometimes called the "Noether boys". In 1924, Dutch mathematician B. L. van der Waerden joined her circle and soon became the leading expositor of Noether's ideas: her work was the foundation for the second volume of his influential 1931 textbook, Moderne Algebra. By the time of her plenary address at the 1932 International Congress of Mathematicians in Zürich, her algebraic acumen was recognized around the world. The following year, Germany's Nazi government dismissed Jews from university positions, and Noether moved to the United States to take up a position at Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania. In 1935 she underwent surgery for an ovarian cyst and, despite signs of a recovery, died four days later at the age of 53.

Noether's mathematical work has been divided into three "epochs".] In the first (1908–1919), she made significant contributions to the theories of algebraic invariants and number fields. Her work on differential invariants in the calculus of variations, Noether's theorem, has been called "one of the most important mathematical theorems ever proved in guiding the development of modern physics". In the second epoch, (1920–1926), she began work that "changed the face of [abstract] algebra". In her classic paper Idealtheorie in Ringbereichen (Theory of Ideals in Ring Domains, 1921) Noether developed the theory of ideals in commutative rings into a powerful tool with wide-ranging applications. She made elegant use of the ascending chain condition, and objects satisfying it are named Noetherian in her honor. In the third epoch, (1927–1935), she published major works on noncommutative algebras and hypercomplex numbers and united the representation theory of groups with the theory of modules and ideals. In addition to her own publications, Noether was generous with her ideas and is credited with several lines of research published by other mathematicians, even in fields far removed from her main work, such as algebraic topology..."

"...Emmy's father, Max Noether, was descended from a family of wholesale traders in Germany. He had been paralyzed by poliomyelitis at the age of fourteen. He regained mobility, but one leg remained affected. Largely self-taught, he was awarded a doctorate from the University of Heidelberg in 1868. After teaching there for seven years, he took a position in the Bavarian city of Erlangen, where he met and married Ida Amalia Kaufmann, the daughter of a prosperous merchant. Max Noether's mathematical contributions were to algebraic geometry mainly, following in the footsteps of Alfred Clebsch. His best known results are the Brill–Noether theorem and the residue, or AF+BG theorem; several other theorems are associated with him, including Max Noether's theorem.

Emmy Noether was born on 23 March 1882, the first of four children. Her first name was "Amalie", after her mother and paternal grandmother, but she began using her middle name at a young age. As a girl, she was well liked. She did not stand out academically although she was known for being clever and friendly. Emmy was near-sighted and talked with a minor lisp during childhood. A family friend recounted a story years later about young Emmy quickly solving a brain teaser at a children's party, showing logical acumen at that early age. Emmy was taught to cook and clean, as were most girls of the time, and she took piano lessons. She pursued none of these activities with passion, although she loved to dance.

She had three younger brothers. The eldest, Alfred, was born in 1883, was awarded a doctorate in chemistry from Erlangen in 1909, but died nine years later. Fritz Noether, born in 1884, is remembered for his academic accomplishments: after studying in Munich he made a reputation for himself in applied mathematics. The youngest, Gustav Robert, was born in 1889. Very little is known about his life; he suffered from chronic illness and died in 1928..."

"...Although Noether's theorem had a profound effect upon physics, among mathematicians she is best remembered for her seminal contributions to abstract algebra. As Nathan Jacobson says in his Introduction to Noether's Collected Papers

The development of abstract algebra, which is one of the most distinctive innovations of twentieth century mathematics, is largely due to her – in published papers, in lectures, and in personal influence on her contemporaries..."

"...When Adolf Hitler became the German Reichskanzler in January 1933, Nazi activity around the country increased dramatically. At the University of Göttingen the German Student Association led the attack on the "un-German spirit" attributed to Jews and was aided by a privatdozent named Werner Weber, a former student of Emmy Noether. Antisemitic attitudes created a climate hostile to Jewish professors. One young protester reportedly demanded: "Aryan students want Aryan mathematics and not Jewish mathematics."..."

"...As dozens of newly unemployed professors began searching for positions outside of Germany, their colleagues in the United States sought to provide assistance and job opportunities for them. Albert Einstein and Hermann Weyl were appointed by the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, while others worked to find a sponsor required for legal immigration. Noether was contacted by representatives of two educational institutions, Bryn Mawr College in the United States and Somerville College at the University of Oxford in England. After a series of negotiations with the Rockefeller Foundation, a grant to Bryn Mawr was approved for Noether and she took a position there, starting in late 1933..."

"...Noether's work continues to be relevant for the development of theoretical physics and mathematics and she consistently is ranked as one of the greatest mathematicians of the twentieth century. In his obituary, fellow algebraist B. L. van der Waerden says that her mathematical originality was "absolute beyond comparison",] and Hermann Weyl said that Noether "changed the face of algebra by her work". During her lifetime and even until today, Noether has been characterized as the greatest woman mathematician in recorded history by mathematicians such as Pavel Alexandrov, Hermann Weyl, and Jean Dieudonné.

In a letter to The New York Times, Albert Einstein wrote:

In the judgment of the most competent living mathematicians, Fräulein Noether was the most significant creative mathematical genius thus far produced since the higher education of women began. In the realm of algebra, in which the most gifted mathematicians have been busy for centuries, she discovered methods which have proved of enormous importance in the development of the present-day younger generation of mathematicians..."
SOURCE: Wikipedia contributors, 'Emmy Noether', Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 6 February 2012, 07:49 UTC, <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emmy_Noether&oldid=475358460> [accessed 13 February 2012]

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Emmy Noether (German: [%CB%88n%C3%B8%CB%90t%C9%90]; official name Amalie Emmy Noether; 23 March 1882 – 14 April 1935) was a German Jewish mathematician known for her landmark contributions to abstract algebra and theoretical physics. She was described by Pavel Alexandrov, Albert Einstein, Jean Dieudonné, Hermann Weyl, and Norbert Wiener as the most important woman in the history of mathematics. As one of the leading mathematicians of her time, she developed the theories of rings, fields, and algebras. In physics, Noether's theorem explains the connection between symmetry and conservation laws.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_Noether

Amalie "Emmy" Noether began studying math in the early 1900s. In 1907, she was the second woman to receive a doctorate in math from the University of Erlangen, but the university would not hire her to teach since she was a woman. After WWI she was offered a position at the University of Gottingen. In 1933, when Hitler demanded that all Jews be removed from university positions, Noether lost her job. She opted to move to the US and found a job at Bryn Mawr College. Noether made many contributions to the field of math. She studied abstract algebra and had a unique way of looking at the topic. This allowed her to see relationships in new ways. During her career, Noether published more than 40 papers.