Simeon I "the Great," emperor of Bulgaria

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Simeon (also Symeon)[1] I the Great (Bulgarian: Симеон I Велики, transliterated Simeon I Veliki;[2] pronounced [sim%C9%9B%CB%88%C9%94n ˈpɤrvi vɛˈliki]) ruled over Bulgaria from 893 to 927,[3] during the First Bulgarian Empire. Simeon's successful campaigns against the Byzantines, Magyars and Serbs led Bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion ever,[4] making it the most powerful state in contemporary Eastern Europe.[5] His reign was also a period of unmatched cultural prosperity and enlightenment later deemed the Golden Age of Bulgarian culture.[6]

During Simeon's rule, Bulgaria spread over a territory between the Aegean, the Adriatic and the Black Sea,[7][8] and the new Bulgarian capital Preslav was said to rival Constantinople.[8][9] The newly-independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church became the first new patriarchate besides the Pentarchy and Bulgarian Glagolitic translations of Christian texts spread all over the Slavic world of the time.[10] Halfway through his reign, Simeon assumed the title of Emperor (Tsar),[11] having prior to that been styled Prince (Knyaz).[12]

Background and Early Life

Simeon was born in 864 or 865 as the third son of Knyaz Boris I[12] of Krum's dynasty.[13] As Boris was the ruler who Christianized Bulgaria in 865, Simeon was a Christian all his life.[12][14] Because his eldest brother Vladimir was designated heir to the Bulgarian throne, Boris intended Simeon to become a high-ranking cleric,[15] possibly Bulgarian archbishop, and sent him to the leading University of Constantinople to receive theological education when he was thirteen or fourteen.[14] He took the Hebrew name Simeon[16] as a novice in a monastery in Constantinople.[14] During the decade (ca. 878–888) he spent in the Byzantine capital, he received excellent education and studied the rhetoric of Demosthenes and Aristotle.[17] He also learned fluent Greek, to the extent that he was referred to as "the half-Greek" in Byzantine chronicles.[18] He is speculated to have been tutored by Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople,[19] but this is not supported by any source.[14]

Around 888, Simeon returned to Bulgaria and settled at the newly-established royal monastery of Preslav "at the mouth of the Tiča",[21] where, under the guidance of Naum of Preslav, he engaged in active translation of important religious works from Greek to Old Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian), aided by other students from Constantinople.[14] Meanwhile, Vladimir had succeeded Boris, who had retreated to a monastery, as ruler of Bulgaria. Vladimir attempted to reintroduce paganism in the empire and possibly signed an anti-Byzantine pact with Arnulf of Carinthia,[22] forcing Boris to re-enter political life. Boris had Vladimir imprisoned and blinded, and then appointed Simeon as the new ruler.[23][24] This was done at an assembly in Preslav which also proclaimed Bulgarian as the only language of state and church[25] moved the Bulgarian capital from Pliska to Preslav, to better cement the recent conversion.[26] It is not known why Boris did not place his second son, Gavril, on the throne, but instead preferred Simeon.[12]

“ For who could have anticipated that Simeon, who for his great wisdom, for the favour shown him by heaven, has led the Bulgarian nation to a height of glory, who more than any man detests knavery, who honours justice, who abominates injustice, who is above all sensual pleasures… ”

—from Nicholas Mystikos' letters to Simeon [20]

Trade War with Byzantium and Magyar invasions

With Simeon on the throne, the long-lasting peace with the Byzantine Empire established by his father was about to end. A conflict arose when Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise, allegedly acting under pressure from his mistress Zoe Zaoutzaina and her father Stylianos Zaoutzes, moved the marketplace for Bulgarian goods from Constantinople to Thessaloniki,[15] where the Bulgarian merchants were heavily taxed. The Bulgarians sought protection by Simeon, who in turn complained to Leo. However, the Byzantine emperor ignored his embassy.[27][28]

Forced to take action, in the autumn of 894 Simeon invaded the Byzantine Empire from the north, meeting with little opposition[29] due to the concentration of most Byzantine forces in eastern Anatolia to counter Arab invasions.[30] Informed of the Bulgarian offensive, the surprised Leo sent an army consisting of guardsmen and other military units from the capital to halt Simeon, but his troops were routed[15][31] somewhere in the theme of Macedonia.[8] The Bulgarians took most of the Khazar mercenary guardsmen prisoners and killed many archons, including the army's commander. However, instead of continuing his advance to the Byzantine capital, Simeon quickly withdrew his troops to face a Magyar invasion from the north.[32] These events were later called "the first trade war in medieval Europe" by Bulgarian historians.[31]

Unable to effectively respond to the Bulgarian campaign due to the engagement of their forces against the Arabs, the Byzantines convinced the Magyars to attack Bulgaria,[15] promising to transport them across the Danube using the Byzantine navy.[31][33] Leo VI may have also concluded an agreement with Arnulf to make sure that the Franks did not support Simeon against the Magyars.[34] In addition, the talented commander Nikephoros Phokas was called back from Italy to lead a separate army against Bulgaria in 895 with the mere intention to overawe the Bulgarians.[35] Simeon, unaware of the threat from the north, rushed to meet Phokas' forces, but the two armies did not engage in a fight.[36] Instead, the Byzantines offered peace, informing him of both the Byzantine foot and maritime campaign, but intentionally did not notify him of the planned Magyar attack. Simeon did not trust the envoy and, after sending him to prison, ordered the Byzantine navy's route into the Danube closed off with ropes and chains, intending to hold it until he had dealt with Phokas.[37]

Despite the problems they encountered because of the fencing, the Byzantines ultimately managed to ferry the Magyar forces led by Árpád's son Liüntika across the Danube,[38] possibly near modern Galaţi,[39] and assisted them in pillaging the nearby Bulgarian lands. Once notified of the surprise invasion, Simeon headed north to stop the Magyars, leaving some of his troops at the southern border to prevent a possible attack by Phokas.[40] Simeon's two encounters with the enemy in Northern Dobruja resulted in Magyar victories,[15] forcing him to retreat to Drǎstǎr.[40][41] After pillaging much of Bulgaria and reaching Preslav, the Magyars returned to their lands,[42] but not before Simeon had concluded an armistice with Byzantium towards the summer of 895.[35] A complete peace was delayed, as Leo VI required the release of the Byzantine captives from the Trade War.[43]

Anti-Magyar campaign and further wars with Byzantium

Having dealt with the pressure from the Magyars and the Byzantines, Simeon was free to plan a campaign against the Magyars looking for retribution. He negotiated a joint force with the Magyars' eastern neighbours, the Pechenegs, and imprisoned the Byzantine envoy Leo Magister in order to delay the release of the captives until after the campaign against the Magyars.[44] This would allow him to renegotiate the peace conditions in his favour. In an exchange of letters with the envoy, Simeon refused to release the captives and ridiculed Leo VI's astrological abilities.[15][45]

Using a Magyar invasion in the lands of the neighbouring Slavs in 896 as a casus belli, Simeon headed against the Magyars together with his Pecheneg allies, defeating them completely[46] in the Battle of Southern Buh and making them leave Etelköz forever and settle in Pannonia.[8][15] Following the defeat of the Magyars, Simeon finally released the Byzantine prisoners in exchange for Bulgarians captured in 895.[15]

Claiming that not all prisoners had been released,[46] Simeon once again invaded Byzantium in the summer of 896, heading directly to Constantinople.[47] He was met in Thrace by a hastily-assembled Byzantine army, but annihilated the Byzantine forces in the Battle of Bulgarophygon (at modern Babaeski, Turkey).[15][48] Arming Arab captives and sending them to fight with the Bulgarians as a desperate measure, Leo VI managed to repel the Bulgarians from Constantinople, which they had besieged.[15][49] The war ended with a peace treaty which formally lasted until around Leo VI's death in 912[8] and under which Byzantium was obliged to pay Bulgaria an annual tribute.[50] Under the treaty, the Byzantines also ceded an area between the Black Sea and Strandža to the Bulgarian Empire.[51] Meanwhile, Simeon had also imposed his authority over Serbia in return for recognizing Petar Gojniković as their ruler.[52]

Simeon often violated the peace treaty with Byzantium, attacking and conquering Byzantine territory on several occasions,[53] such as in 904, when the Bulgarian raids were used by Arabs led by the Byzantine renegade Leo of Tripoli to undertake a maritime campaign and seize Thessaloniki.[54] After the Arabs plundered the city, it was an easy target for Bulgaria and the nearby Slavic tribes. In order to dissuade Simeon from capturing the city and populating it with Slavs,[15][55] Leo VI was forced to make further territorial concessions to the Bulgarians in the modern region of Macedonia. With the treaty of 904, all Slavic-inhabited lands in modern southern Macedonia and southern Albania were ceded to the Bulgarian Empire,[8][56] with the border line running some 20 kilometres north of Thessaloniki.[57]

Recognition as Emperor

The death of Leo VI on 11 May 912 and the accession of his infant son Constantine VII under the guidance of Leo's brother Alexander, who expelled Leo's wife Zoe from the palace, constituted a great opportunity for Simeon to attempt another campaign against Constantinople, the conquest of which remained the dream of his life. In the spring of 913, Simeon's envoys, which had arrived in Constantinople to renew the peace of 896, were sent away by Alexander, who refused to pay the annual tribute, urging Simeon to prepare for war.[58]

“ Simeon was the Bulgarian Charlemagne, but he was better educated than our Charles the Great and much greater than him, for he laid down the foundations of literature that belonged to the people.[59] ”

—Alfred Nicolas Rambaud, French historian

Before Simeon could attack, Alexander died on 6 June 913, leaving the empire in the hands of a regency council headed by Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos.[60] Many of the residents of Constantinople did not recognize the young emperor and supported the pretender Constantine Doukas,[61] which, exacerbated by revolts in southern Italy and the planned Arab invasion in eastern Anatolia, was all to Simeon's advantage.[62] Nicholas Mystikos tried to discourage Simeon from invading Byzantium in a long series of pleading letters, but the Bulgarian ruler nevertheless attacked in full force in late July or August 913 and reached Constantinople without any serious resistance.[63] However, the anarchy in Constantinople had ceased after the murder of the pretender Constantine Doukas and a government had promptly been formed with Patriarch Nicholas at the helm.[64] This urged Simeon to raise his siege and enter peace negotiations, to the joy of the Byzantines.[64] The protracted negotiations resulted in the payment of the Byzantine tribute's arrears,[65] the promise that Constantine VII should marry one of Simeon's daughters[15][63] and, most importantly, Simeon's official recognition as Emperor of the Bulgarians by Patriarch Nicholas[66][67] in the Blachernai Palace.

Shortly after Simeon's visit to Constantinople, Constantine's mother Zoe returned to the palace on the insistence of the young emperor and immediately proceeded to eliminate the regents. Through a plot, she managed to assume power in February 914, practically removing Patriarch Nicholas from the government, disowning and obscuring his recognition of Simeon's imperial title[68] and rejecting the planned marriage of her son to one of Simeon's daughters.[69] Simeon had to resort to war to achieve his goals. He invaded Thrace in the summer of 914 and captured Adrianople. Zoe was quick to send Simeon numerous presents in order to conciliate him and managed to convince him to cede back Adrianople and withdraw his army. In the following years, Simeon's forces were engaged in the northwestern Byzantine provinces, around Drač (Durrës) and Thessaloniki, but did not make a move against Constantinople.[70]

Victories at Acheloos and Katasyrtai

By 917, Simeon was preparing for yet another war against Byzantium. He attempted to conclude an anti-Byzantine union with the Pechenegs, but his envoys could not match the financial resources of the Byzantines, who succeeded in outbidding them.[71] The Byzantines hatched a large-scale campaign against Bulgaria and also tried to persuade the Serbian Prince Petar Gojniković to attack the Bulgarians with Magyar support.[72]

In 917, a particularly strong Byzantine army led by Leo Phokas the Elder, son of Nikephoros Phokas, invaded Bulgaria accompanied by the Byzantine navy under the command of Romanos Lekapenos, which sailed to the Bulgarian Black Sea ports. En route to Mesembria (Nesebǎr), where they were supposed to be reinforced by troops transported by the navy, Phokas' forces stopped to rest near the river of Acheloos, not far from the port of Anchialos (Pomorie).[73][74] Once informed of the invasion, Simeon rushed to intercept the Byzantines, and attacked them from the nearby hills while they were resting disorganized. In the Battle of Acheloos of 20 August 917, one of the largest in medieval history,[75] the Bulgarians completely routed the Byzantines and killed many of their commanders, although Phokas managed to escape to Mesembria.[76] Decades later, Leo the Deacon would write that "piles of bones can still be seen today at the river Acheloos, where the fleeing army of the Byzantines was then infamously slain".[77]

The planned Pecheneg attack from the north also failed, as the Pechenegs quarrelled with admiral Lekapenos, who refused to transport them across the Danube to aid the main Byzantine army.[73] The Byzantines were not aided by Serbs and Magyars either: the Magyars were engaged in Western Europe as Frankish allies, and the Serbs under Petar Gojniković were reluctant to attack Bulgaria because the Bulgarian ally Mihailo Višević of Zahumlje had notified Simeon of their plans.[79]

Simeon's army quickly followed up the victory of Acheloos with another success.[63] The Bulgarians sent to pursuit the remnants of the Byzantine army approached Constantinople and encountered Byzantine forces under Leo Phokas, who had returned to the capital, at the village of Katasyrtai in the immediate proximity of Constantinople.[80] The Bulgarian regiments attacked and again defeated the Byzantines, destroying some of their last units before returning to Bulgaria.[81]

Suppression of Serbian unrest and late campaigns against Byzantium

Immediately after that campaign, Simeon sought to punish the Serbian ruler Petar Gojniković who had attempted to betray him by concluding an alliance with the Byzantines.[8] Simeon sent an army led by two of his commanders, Theodore Sigrica and Marmais, to Serbia. The two managed to persuade Petar to attend a personal meeting, during which he was enchained and carried off to Bulgaria, where he died in a dungeon. Simeon put Pavle Branović, prior to that an exile in Bulgaria, on the Serbian throne, thus restoring the Bulgarian influence in Serbia for a while.[82]

Meanwhile, the Byzantine military failures forced another change of government in Constantinople: the admiral Romanos Lekapenos replaced Zoe as regent of the young Constantine VII in 919, forcing her back into a convent. Romanos betrothed his daughter Helena Lekapene to Constantine and advanced to the rank of co-emperor in December 920, effectively assuming the government of the empire,[83][84] which was largely what Simeon had planned to do.[85]

No longer able to climb to the Byzantine throne by diplomatic means, the infuriated Simeon once again had to wage war to impose his will. Between 920 and 922, Bulgaria increased its pressure on Byzantium, campaigning in the west through Thessaly reaching the Isthmus of Corinth and in the east in Thrace, reaching and crossing the Dardanelles to lay siege on the town of Lampsacus.[15][86] Simeon's forces appeared before Constantinople in 921, when they demanded the deposition of Romanos and captured Adrianople, and 922, when they were victorious at Pigae, burned much of the Golden Horn and seized Bizye.[87][88] In the meantime, the Byzantines attempted to ignite Serbia against Simeon, but he substituted Pavle with Zaharije Pribisavljević, a former refugee at Constantinople that he had captured.[15][87]

Desperate to conquer Constantinople, Simeon planned a large campaign in 924 and sent envoys to the Fatimid caliph Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah, who possessed a powerful navy which Simeon needed. The caliph agreed and sent his own representatives back with the Bulgarians to arrange the alliance. However, the envoys were captured by the Byzantines at Calabria. Romanos offered peace to the Arabs, supplementing this offer with generous gifts, and ruined their union with Bulgaria.[15][89]

In Serbia, Zaharije was persuaded by the Byzantines to revolt against Simeon. Zaharije was supported by many Bulgarians exhausted from Simeon's endless campaigns against Byzantium.[90] The Bulgarian emperor sent his troops under Sigrica and Marmais, but they were routed and the two commanders beheaded, which forced Simeon to conclude an armistice with Byzantium in order to concentrate on the suppression of the uprising. Simeon sent an army led by Časlav Klonimirović in 924 to depose Zaharije. He was successful, as Zaharije fled to Croatia. After this victory, the Serbian nobility was invited to come to Bulgaria and bow to the new Prince. However, he did not appear at the supposed meeting and all of them were beheaded. Bulgaria annexed Serbia directly.[15][91]

In the summer of 924, Simeon nevertheless arrived at Constantinople and demanded to see the patriarch and the emperor. He conversed with Romanos on the Golden Horn on 9 September 924 and arranged a truce, according to which Byzantium would pay Bulgaria an annual tax, but would be ceded back some cities on the Black Sea coast.[92] During the interview of the two monarchs, two eagles are said to have met in the skies above and then to have parted, one of them flying over Constantinople and the other heading to Thrace, as a sign of the irreconcilability of the two rulers.[93] In his description of this meeting, Theophanes Continuatus mentions that "the two emperors… conversed", which may indicate renewed Byzantine recognition of Simeon's imperial claims.[94]

War with Croatia and death

Most likely after (or possibly at the time of) Patriarch Nicholas' death in 925, Simeon raised the status of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church to a patriarchate.[95] This may be linked to Simeon's diplomatic relations with the Papacy between 924 and 926, during which he demanded and received Pope John X's recognition of his title as "Emperor of the Romans", truly equal to the Byzantine emperor, and possibly the confirmation of a patriarchal dignity for the head of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church.[96]

In 926, Simeon's troops under Alogobotur invaded Croatia, at the time a Byzantine ally, but were completely defeated by the army of King Tomislav in the Battle of the Bosnian Highlands.[8] Fearing a Bulgarian retribution, Tomislav accepted to abandon his union with Byzantium and make peace on the basis of the status quo, negotiated by the papal legate Madalbert.[97][98] In the last months of his life, Simeon prepared for another siege of Constantinople[86] despite Romanos' desperate pleas for peace.[99]

On 27 May 927, Simeon died of heart failure in his palace in Preslav. Byzantine chroniclers tie his death to a legend, according to which Romanos decapitated a statue which was Simeon's inanimate double, and he died at that very hour.[100][101]

He was succeeded by his son Peter I, with George Sursuvul, the new emperor's maternal uncle, initially acting as a regent.[86] As part of the peace treaty which Bulgaria and Byzantium signed in October 927 and Peter's marriage to Maria (Eirene), Romanos' granddaughter, the existing borders were confirmed, as were the Bulgarian ruler's imperial dignity and the head of the Bulgarian Church's patriarchal status.[102]

Culture and religion

During Simeon's reign, Bulgaria reached its cultural apogee, becoming the literary and spiritual centre of Slavic Europe.[3][104] In this respect, Simeon continued his father Boris' policy of establishing and spreading Slavic culture and attracting noted scholars and writers within Bulgaria's borders. It was in the Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School, founded under Boris, that the main literary work in Bulgaria was concentrated during the reign of Simeon.[105]

“ A new Ptolemy as he presented himself to them,

but not in faith — in desire mostly,

and due to his collection of all

divine and most precious books,

with which his palaces he'd filled,

he earned himself eternal memory.[103]

”

— Praise to Tsar Simeon by an anonymous contemporary of the tsar

The late 9th and early 10th century constitute the earliest and most productive period of medieval Bulgarian literature.[105] Having spent his early years in Constantinople, Simeon introduced Byzantine culture to the Bulgarian court, but eliminated its assimilative effect by means of military power and religious autonomy.[105] The disciples of Cyril and Methodius, among whom Clement of Ohrid, Naum and Constantine of Preslav, continued their educational work in Bulgaria, actively translating Christian texts, such as the Bible and the works of John Chrysostom, Basil of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria, Gregory of Nazianzus, Athanasius of Alexandria, as well as historic chronicles such as these of John Malalas and George Hamartolus, to Bulgarian.[105] The reign of Simeon also witnessed the production of a number of original theological and secular works, such as John Exarch's Six Days (Šestodnev), Constantine of Preslav's Alphabetical Prayer and Proclamation of the Holy Gospels, and Černorizec Hrabǎr's An Account of Letters.[105] Simeon's own contribution to this literary blossoming was praised by his contemporaries, for example in the Praise to Tsar Simeon preserved in the Zlatostruj collection and Simeon's Collection,[104] to which the tsar personally wrote an addendum.[106]

Simeon turned the new Bulgarian capital Preslav into a magnificent religious and cultural centre, intended more as a display of his realm's heyday and as a royal residence than as a military fortress.[104] With its more than twenty cross-domed churches and numerous monasteries, its impressive royal palace and the royal Golden (or Round) Basilica, Preslav was a true imperial capital.[104] The development of Bulgarian art in the period is demonstrated by a ceramic icon of Theodore of Amasea and the Preslav-style illustrated ceramics.[107]

Family

Simeon was married twice. By his first wife, whose identity is unknown, Simeon had a son called Michael,[108] who was born before 913. He was excluded from the succession in 927 and sent to a monastery. He died in 931, shortly after organizing a revolt.[86]

By his second wife, the daughter of the influential noble George Sursuvul, he had three sons: Peter, who succeeded as Emperor of Bulgaria in 927 and ruled until 969; Ivan, who rebelled against Peter in 928 and then fled to Byzantium;[86] and Benjamin (Bajan), who, according to Lombard historian Liutprand of Cremona, "possessed the power to transform himself suddenly into a wolf or other strange animal".[109]

Simeon also had several daughters, including one who was arranged to marry Constantine VII in 913, and was thus born before that date.[86] The marriage was annulled by Constantine's mother Zoe once she had returned to the court.[110]

Family tree of Simeon I[111

Boris I

(d. 907, ruled 852—889) Maria

Vladimir

(ruled 889–893) Gabriel (Gavril) Jacob (Jakov) Eupraxia (Evpraksija) Anna

 	1

unknown wife Simeon I

(b. 864/865, d. 927,

ruled 893–927) 2

daughter of

George Sursuvul

 	 1 	 2 	 2 	 2 	 ?

Michael
(d. 931) Peter I

(b. after 912, d. 970,

ruled 927–969) Ivan Benjamin daughters

Legacy and popular culture

Tsar Simeon I has remained among the most highly valued Bulgarian historical figures, as indicated by popular vote in the Velikite Bǎlgari (a spin-off of 100 Greatest Britons) television programme, which in February 2007 placed him fourth among the greatest Bulgarians ever.[112] The last Bulgarian monarch, Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, was named after Simeon I.[113] A brand of high-quality grape rakija, Car Simeon Veliki, also bears his name,[114] and an Antarctic peak on Livingston Island of the South Shetland Islands was named Simeon Peak in his honour by the Antarctic Place-names Commission.[115]

Simeon the Great has also been regularly featured in fiction. Bulgarian national writer Ivan Vazov dedicated a children's patriotic poem to him, "Car Simeon", and it was later arranged as a song, "Kraj Bosfora šum se vdiga" ("A Clamor Rises by the Bosphorus").[116] An eleven-episode drama series filmed in 1984, Zlatnijat vek (Golden Age), retells the story of Simeon's reign. In the series, the tsar is played by Marius Donkin.[117] A historical drama play called Car Simeon — Zlatnijat vek and produced by Stefan Stajčev, director of the Silistra Theatre, debuted in December 2006. Ivan Samokovliev stars in the part of Simeon.[118]

Footnotes

1. ^ For example in Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans.
2. ^ This article uses the United Nations-authorized scientific transliteration system to romanize Bulgarian Cyrillic. For details, see Romanization of Bulgarian.
3. ^ a b Lalkov, Rulers of Bulgaria, pp. 23–25.
4. ^ (in Bulgarian) Enciklopedija Bǎlgarija. Akademično izdatelstvo "Marin Drinov". 1988. OCLC 75865504.
5. ^ "The First Bulgarian Empire". Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556147_8/Bulgaria.html#p48. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
6. ^ Hart, Nancy (PDF). Bulgarian Art and Culture: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. University of Texas at Austin. pp. 21. http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/creees/content/outreach/fulbrigh.... Retrieved 2007-03-03.
7. ^ Weigand, Gustav (1924). "1 Istoriko-geografski obzor: 4 Srednovekovie" (in Bulgarian). Etnografija na Makedonija. trans. Elena Pipiševa. Leipzig: Friedrich Brandstetter. http://knigite.abv.bg/gw/gw_1_4.html.
8. ^ a b c d e f g h Bakalov, Istorija na Bǎlgarija, "Simeon I Veliki".
9. ^ "About Bulgaria" (PDF). U.S. Embassy Sofia, Bulgaria. http://sofia.usembassy.gov/uploads/images/9slwbq67Sfo4dBuR2WMVfg/ab.... Retrieved 2007-03-03.
10. ^ Castellan, Georges (1999) (in Bulgarian). Istorija na Balkanite XIV–XX vek. trans. Liljana Caneva. Plovdiv: Hermes. pp. 37. ISBN 954-459-901-0.
11. ^ "Цѣсарь Блъгарѡмъ". Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 367.
12. ^ a b c d Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 280.
13. ^ Dimitrov, Božidar. "Hramǎt “Sveti Četirideset mǎčenici”" (in Bulgarian). National Historical Museum. http://www.historymuseum.org/upload/fck_editor/40%20mazenizi(6).htm.... Retrieved 2007-03-07.
14. ^ a b c d e Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 132.
15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.
16. ^ "From the Greek form of the Hebrew name שִׁמְעוֹן (Shim'on) which meant "hearkening" or "listening"." Campbell, Mike. "Biblical Names". Behind the Name. http://www.behindthename.com/nmc/bibl2.php. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
17. ^ "Hunc etenim Simeonem emiargon, id est semigrecum, esse aiebant, eo quod a puericia Bizantii Demostenis rhetoricam Aristotelisque sillogismos didicerit". Liutprand of Cremona. Antapodosis, cap. 29, p. 66. Cited in Drinov, Marin (1876) (in Russian). Južnye slavjane i Vizantija v X veke. pp. 374.
18. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 132.

• Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.
• Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 282.

1. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 281.
2. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 133.
3. ^ This is not to be understood literally, as the mouth of the Tiča lies to the east, on the Black Sea coast. Researchers link the word ustie ("river mouth") in the sources to a narrow section of the river or to the Ustie pass near the city. Nikolova, Bistra (2002). "Veliki Preslav" (in Bulgarian). Pravoslavnite cǎrkvi prez Bǎlgarskoto srednovekovie. Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. pp. 88. ISBN 954-430-762-1.
4. ^ Annales Fuldenses, p. 408. Cited in Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 133.
5. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 283.
6. ^ Todt, Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon.
7. ^ Crampton, R.J. (2005). "The Reign of Simeon the Great (893–927)". A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–17. ISBN 0521850851.
8. ^ Kalojanov, Ančo (2005-05-11). "Slavjanskata pravoslavna civilizacija" (in Bulgarian). http://liternet.bg/publish/akaloianov/civilizacia.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
9. ^ John Skylitzes. Skylitzes–Kedrenos, II, p. 254.4–16
10. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 144–145.
11. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 289.
12. ^ Theophanes Continuatus, p. 312., cited in Vasil'ev, A. (1902) (in Russian). Vizantija i araby, II. pp. 88, p. 104, pp. 108–111.
13. ^ a b c Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 198.
14. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 289–291.
15. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 145.
16. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 294–295.
17. ^ a b Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 146.
18. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 295.
19. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 296–297.
20. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 297.
21. ^ According to toponymic evidence. Kuun, Géza (1895) (in Latin). Relationum Hungarorum cum oriente gentibusque originis historia antiquissima. pp. 23.
22. ^ a b Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 298–299.
23. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 199.
24. ^ Bakalov, Istorija na Bǎlgarija, "Simeon I Veliki".

• Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.
• Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 199.

1. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 301–304.
2. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 304.
3. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 304–311.
4. ^ a b Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 147.
5. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 315.
6. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 316.
7. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 317.
8. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 148.
9. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 318–321.
10. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 141.
11. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 321.
12. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 324.
13. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 152.
14. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 334–337.
15. ^ "In the year 6412 since the creation of the world, indict 7 (904). Border between Byzantines and Bulgarians. In the time of Simeon, by the grace of God Prince of
16. the Bulgarians, under Olgu Tarkan Theodore and under Komit Drista." Border marking inscription from Narǎš (modern Greece). Uspenskij, F.I. (1898). "Pograničnyj stolb meždu Vizantiej i Bolgariej pri Simeone" (in Russian). Izvestija russkogo arheologičeskogo instituta v Konstantinopole: 184–194.
17. ^ Todt, Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon.

• Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 155.
• Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 352.
• Bǎlgarite i Bǎlgarija, 1.2.

1. ^ Cited in Dimitrov, Bulgaria: illustrated history.
2. ^ Todt, Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon.

• Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 155.
• Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 212.

1. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 156.
2. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 353.
3. ^ a b c Bǎlgarite i Bǎlgarija, 1.2.
4. ^ a b Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 359.
5. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 157.
6. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, pp. 144–148.
7. ^ Ostrogorsky, George (1935). "Avtokrator i samodržac" (in Serbian). Glas Srpske kraljevske akademije (CLXIV): 95–187.
8. ^ Loud, G.A. (1978). "A re-examination of the ‘coronation’ of Symeon of Bulgaria in 913". The Journal of Theological Studies (Oxford University Press) xxix (XXIX): 109–120. doi:10.1093/jts/XXIX.1.109.
9. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 367–368.
10. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 158–159.
11. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 159.
12. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 375–376.
13. ^ a b Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 160–161.
14. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 376–377.
15. ^ Dimitrov, Bulgaria: illustrated history.
16. ^ Theophanes Continuatus, trans. Paul Stephenson. "Symeon of Bulgaria wins the Battle of Acheloos, 917". http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/theocont2.html. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
17. ^ Leo the Deacon, History, p. 12410–12. Cited in Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 216.
18. ^ According to Čolpanov, Boris (1988) (in Bulgarian). Slavata na Bǎlgarija: istoriko-hudožestven očerk. Sofia: Voenno izdatelstvo. OCLC 22276650.
19. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 370.
20. ^ De Boor, Сarl Gothard (1888). Vita Euthymii. Berlin: Reimer. pp. 214.
21. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 382.
22. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 385–386.
23. ^ Alexander Kazhdan, ed (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press.
24. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 163.
25. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 217.
26. ^ a b c d e f Cawley, Charles (2006–2007). "Bulgaria: Symeon I 893–927". Medieval Lands. Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/BULGARIA.htm#_Toc137439346.
27. ^ a b Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 164–165.
28. ^ Vita S. Mariae Junioris.
29. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 168–169.
30. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 446–447.
31. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 459.
32. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 169–172.
33. ^ Theophanes Continuatus, pp. 405–407.
34. ^ "tôn basileôn omilountôn". Discussed in Stephenson, Paul. "The peace agreed between Romanos Lekapenos and Symeon of Bulgaria, AD 924 (translation of Theophanes Continuatus)". http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/theocont3.html. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
35. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 156.
36. ^ Mladjov, Ian (1999). "Between Byzantium and Rome: Bulgaria and the West in the Aftermath of the Photian Schism". Byzantine Studies/Études Byzantines: 173–181.
37. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 225.
38. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 176.
39. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 489–491.
40. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 176–77.
41. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 226–227.
42. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans.
43. ^ Ivanova, "Pohvala za car Simeon", Tǎržestvo na slovoto.
44. ^ a b c d Delev, Zlatnijat vek na bǎlgarskata kultura.
45. ^ a b c d e Ivanova, "Introduction", Tǎržestvo na slovoto.
46. ^ Ivanova, "Pribavka ot samija hristoljubiv car Simeon", Tǎržestvo na slovoto.
47. ^ "Risuvana keramika". Muzej Preslav. http://www.museum-preslav.com/colectr.html. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
48. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 160.
49. ^ Antapodosis, p. 309.
50. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 148.
51. ^ Cawley, Medieval Lands.

• Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 280, p. 495.
• Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 133, p. 177.

1. ^ "Vasil Levski beše izbran za naj-velikija bǎlgarin na vsički vremena" (in Bulgarian). Velikite Bǎlgari. 2007-02-18. http://velikite.bg/index.php?p=4&id=58. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
2. ^ "Simeon Sakskoburggotski (Car Simeon Vtori)" (in Bulgarian). OMDA.bg. http://www.omda.bg/bulg/news/personal/simeon.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
3. ^ "Grozdova rakija: Car Simeon Veliki" (in Bulgarian). Vinex. http://www.vinexbg.com/bg/main/grape-brandy/brandy.html. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
4. ^ "Bulgarian Antarctic Gazetteer: Simeon Peak". Antarctic Place-names Commission. Republic of Bulgaria, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. http://apc.mfa.government.bg/peaks/simeon.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
5. ^ "Večnite pesni na Bǎlgarija" (in Bulgarian). Novoto vreme. http://www.novotovreme.bg/?cid=15&spid=126&PHPSESSID=f48bebc98a0238.... Retrieved 2007-03-25.
6. ^ ""Zlatniyat vek" (1984)". IMDb. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0369188/. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
7. ^ "Tazi večer v Silistra e premierata na grandioznija istoričeski spektakǎl "Zlatnijat vek — Car Simeon Veliki"" (in Bulgarian). bTV Novinite. 2006-12-07. http://btv.bg/news/?magic=bulgaria&story=54704&page=2. Retrieved 2007-03-25.

References:

1. Bakalov, Georgi; Milen Kumanov (2003) (in Bulgarian). Elektronno izdanie – Istorija na Bǎlgarija. Sofia: Trud, Sirma. ISBN 9844830679. OCLC 62020465.
2. Bogdanov, Ivan (1973) (in Bulgarian). Simeon Veliki — epoha i ličnost. Sofia. OCLC 71590049.
3. Bozhilov, Ivan (1983) (in Bulgarian). Car Simeon Veliki (893–927) — zlatnijat vek na srednovekovna Bǎlgarija. Sofia: Izdatelstvo na Otečestvenija front. OCLC 1323835.
4. Tsanev, Stefan (2006). "10 (889–912) Zlatnijat vek. Knjaz Rasate-Vladimir, car Simeon Veliki; 11 (912–927) Kǎrvavijat vek. Simeon — car na bǎlgari i romei" (in Bulgarian). Bǎlgarski hroniki. Sofia, Plovdiv: Trud, Žanet 45. ISBN 954-528-610-5.
5. Delev, Petǎr; Valeri Kacunov, Plamen Mitev, Evgeniya Kalinova, Iskra Baeva, Boian Dobrev (2006). "9 Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri Car Simeon; 10 Zlatnijat vek na bǎlgarskata kultura" (in Bulgarian). Istorija i civilizacija za 11. klas. Trud, Sirma. ISBN 9549926729.
6. Dimitrov, Bozhidar (1994). "Bulgaria — a predominant power in the European East 893–967 AD". Bulgaria: illustrated history. Sofia: Borina. ISBN 9545000449.
7. Fine, Jr., John V.A. (1991). "5 Bulgaria under Simeon, 893–927". The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472081493.
8. Ivanova, Klimentina; Svetlina Nikolova (1995) (in Bulgarian). Tǎržestvo na slovoto. Zlatnijat vek na bǎlgarskata knižnina. Sofia: Agata-A. ISBN 9789545400056. http://www.promacedonia.org/zv/.
9. Lalkov, Milcho (1997). "Tsar Simeon the Great (893–927)". Rulers of Bulgaria. Kibea. ISBN 954-474-098-8.
10. Runciman, Steven (1930). "Emperor of the Bulgars and the Romans". A history of the First Bulgarian Empire. London: George Bell & Sons. OCLC 832687. http://www.promacedonia.org/en/sr/sr_3_1.htm.
11. Todt, Klaus-Peter (1996). "Symeon, Zar und bedeutendster Herrscher des ersten bulgarischen Reiches" (in German). Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon. Traugott Bautz. ISBN 3-88309-064-6.
12. Zlatarski, Vasil (1971) [1927]. "2 Ot slavjanizacijata na dǎržavata do padaneto na Pǎrvoto carstvo (852–1018): 4 Borba s Vizantija za političesko nadmoštie" (in Bulgarian). Istorija na bǎlgarskata dǎržava prez srednite vekove. Tom I. Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo (2 ed.). Sofia: Nauka i izkustvo. OCLC 67080314. http://www.promacedonia.org/vz1b/index.html.
13. "1.2 Bǎlgarite stavat hristijani. Izborǎt na knjaz Boris I" (in Bulgarian). Bǎlgarite i Bǎlgarija. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bulgaria, Trud, Sirma. 2005.

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BIOGRAPHY: b. 864/865

d. May 27, 927

byname SIMEON THE GREAT, tsar of the first Bulgarian empire (925-927), a warlike sovereign who nevertheless made his court a cultural centre.

Educated in Constantinople (now Istanbul), Simeon succeeded his father, Boris I, in 893 after the short intervening reign (889-893) of his dissolute elder brother, Vladimir.

His dominant ambition, which was to himself ascend the imperial throne of Byzantium--an aspiration afterward shared by many Bulgarian tsars--led Simeon to embark on many wars with the Byzantine Empire (894, 896, 913, 917, 923). He never took Constantinople, although it was more than once at his mercy; but he took for himself the title of "Tsar of All the Bulgarians" (925) and raised the archbishop of Bulgaria to the rank of a patriarch. In the Balkans he extended the power of Bulgaria over south Macedonia, south Albania, and Serbia, which became his vassal; but Bulgaria's dominion north of the Danube was probably lost during his reign. Simeon was twice married and left four sons, of whom the second, Peter I, succeeded him.

Copyright © 1994-2001 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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https://cs.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symeon_I.

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http://www.friesian.com/romania.htm#bulgar-1

Simeon (také Symeon)[1] I. Veliký (bulharsky: Симеон I Велики, přepsáno Simeon I Veliki;[2] vyslovováno [sim%C9%9B%CB%88%C9%94n ˈpɤrvi vɛˈliki]) vládl nad Bulharskem v letech 893 až 3]ɛˈliki]. První Bulharská říše během 927.  Simeonova úspěšná tažení proti Byzantincům, Maďarům a Srbům vedla Bulharsko k jeho největší územní expanzi vůbec,[4] což z něj udělalo nejmocnější stát v současné východní Evropě.[5]  Jeho vláda byla také obdobím nesrovnatelné kulturní prosperity a osvícení, které bylo později považováno za zlatý věk bulharské kultury.[6]

Za Simeonovy vlády se Bulharsko rozkládalo na území mezi Egejským mořem, Jaderským a Černým mořem[7][8] a nové bulharské hlavní město Preslav mělo konkurovat Konstantinopoli.[8][9] Nově nezávislá Bulharská pravoslavná církev se stala prvním novým patriarchátem vedle pentarchie a bulharských hlaholských překladů křesťanských textů rozšířených po celém slovanském světě té doby.[10] V polovině své vlády převzal Simeon titul císaře (cara),[11] předtím, než byl stylizován jako princ (Knyaz).[12]
Pozadí a raný život
Simeon se narodil v roce 864 nebo 865 jako třetí syn Knyaze Borise I.[12] z Krumovy dynastie.[13] Protože Boris byl vládcem, který v roce 865 pokřesťanštěl Bulharsko, Simeon byl křesťanem celý svůj život.[12][14] Protože jeho nejstarší bratr Vladimír byl určen jako dědic bulharského trůnu, Boris zamýšlel, aby se Simeon stal vysoce postaveným duchovním,[15] možná bulharským arcibiskupem, a poslal ho na přední Konstantinopolskou univerzitu, aby získal teologické vzdělání, když mu bylo třináct nebo čtrnáct let. .[14] Hebrejské jméno Simeon[16] přijal jako novic v klášteře v Konstantinopoli.[14] Během desetiletí (asi 878–888), které strávil v byzantském hlavním městě, získal vynikající vzdělání a studoval rétoriku Demosthena a Aristotela.[17] Naučil se také plynně řecky, a to do té míry, že byl v byzantských kronikách označován jako „poloviční Řek“.[18] Spekuluje se, že ho vyučoval patriarcha Photios I. Konstantinopole,[19] ale toto není podpořeno žádným zdrojem.[14]

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Kolem roku 888 se Simeon vrátil do Bulharska a usadil se v nově založeném královském klášteře Preslav „u ústí Tiče“[21], kde se pod vedením Nauma z Preslavu věnoval aktivnímu překládání významných náboženských děl z r. Řečtina až staroslověnština (stará bulharština), s pomocí dalších studentů z Konstantinopole.[14] Mezitím Vladimír nahradil Borise, který se stáhl do kláštera, jako vládce Bulharska. Vladimir se pokusil znovu zavést pohanství v říši a možná podepsal protibyzantskou smlouvu s Arnulfem Korutanským[22], což Borise přimělo znovu vstoupit do politického života. Boris nechal Vladimíra uvěznit a oslepit a poté jmenoval Simeona novým vládcem.[23][24] Stalo se tak na shromáždění v Preslavi, které rovněž prohlásilo bulharštinu za jediný státní a církevní jazyk[25] a přesunulo bulharské hlavní město z Pliska do Preslavi, aby lépe upevnilo nedávnou konverzi.[26] Není známo, proč Boris neposadil na trůn svého druhého syna Gavrila, ale dal přednost Simeonovi.[12]

„Neboť kdo mohl tušit, že Simeon, který pro svou velkou moudrost, pro přízeň, kterou mu prokázala nebesa, přivedl bulharský národ k výšinám slávy, který víc než kdokoli jiný nenávidí lstivost, který ctí spravedlnost, ohavný bezpráví,  který je nade všemi smyslovými požitky…“

—z dopisů Nicholase Mystikose Simeonovi [20]
Obchodní válka s Byzancí a invaze Maďarů
Se Simeonem na trůnu měl skončit dlouhotrvající mír s Byzantskou říší nastolený jeho otcem. Ke konfliktu došlo, když byzantský císař Lev VI. Moudrý, údajně jednající pod tlakem své milenky Zoe Zaoutzainy a jejího otce Stylianose Zaoutzese, přesunul tržiště s bulharským zbožím z Konstantinopole do Soluně,[15] kde byli bulharští obchodníci silně zdaněni. Bulhaři hledali ochranu u Simeona, který si na oplátku stěžoval Leovi. Byzantský císař však své velvyslanectví ignoroval.[27][28]

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Na podzim roku 894 Simeon, donucen k akci, napadl Byzantskou říši ze severu, přičemž se setkal s malým odporem[29] kvůli koncentraci většiny byzantských sil ve východní Anatolii, aby čelil arabským invazím.[30] Překvapený Leo, který byl informován o bulharské ofenzívě, vyslal z hlavního města armádu složenou z gardistů a dalších vojenských jednotek, aby zastavila Simeona, ale jeho jednotky byly poraženy[15][31] někde v tématu Makedonie.[8] Bulhaři zajali většinu chazarských žoldnéřských gardistů a zabili mnoho archontů, včetně velitele armády. Nicméně, místo aby pokračoval v postupu do byzantského hlavního města, Simeon rychle stáhl své jednotky, aby čelil maďarské invazi ze severu.[32] Tyto události byly později bulharskými historiky nazývány „první obchodní válkou ve středověké Evropě“.[31]

Neschopni účinně reagovat na bulharskou kampaň kvůli nasazení svých sil proti Arabům, Byzantinci přesvědčili Maďary, aby zaútočili na Bulharsko,[15] slíbili, že je dopraví přes Dunaj pomocí byzantského námořnictva.[31][33]  Lev VI. mohl také uzavřít dohodu s Arnulfem, aby se ujistil, že Frankové nepodporovali Simeona proti Maďarům.[34]  Talentovaný velitel Nikephoros Phokas byl navíc v roce 895 povolán zpět z Itálie, aby vedl samostatnou armádu proti Bulharsku s pouhým úmyslem zastrašit Bulhary.[35]  Simeon, nevědomý hrozby ze severu, spěchal vstříc Phokasovým silám, ale obě armády se do boje nezapojily.[36]  Místo toho Byzantinci nabídli mír, informovali ho o byzantském pěším i námořním tažení, ale záměrně ho neinformovali o plánovaném útoku Maďarů.  Simeon vyslanci nedůvěřoval a poté, co ho poslal do vězení, nařídil, aby cesta byzantského námořnictva do Dunaje byla uzavřena provazy a řetězy, s úmyslem držet ji, dokud se nevypořádá s Phokasem.[37]

Navzdory problémům, s nimiž se kvůli oplocení setkali, se Byzantincům nakonec podařilo převézt maďarské síly vedené Árpádovým synem Liüntikou přes Dunaj, [38] možná poblíž moderní Galaţi, [39] a pomohli jim při drancování nedalekých bulharských zemí. Jakmile byl Simeon informován o překvapivé invazi, zamířil na sever, aby zastavil Maďary, přičemž některé ze svých jednotek nechal na jižní hranici, aby zabránil možnému útoku Phokas.[40] Simeonova dvě setkání s nepřítelem v Severní Dobrudži vyústila v maďarská vítězství[15], která ho donutila ustoupit do Drǎstǎru.[40][41] Poté, co vyplenili velkou část Bulharska a dosáhli Preslav, se Maďaři vrátili do svých zemí,[42] ale ne dříve, než Simeon uzavřel příměří s Byzancí v létě 895.[35] Úplný mír byl odložen, protože Lev VI požadoval propuštění byzantských zajatců z obchodní války.[43]

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Protimaďarské tažení a další války s Byzancí

Poté, co se Simeon vypořádal s tlakem Maďarů a Byzantinců, mohl svobodně naplánovat kampaň proti Maďarům, která hledala odplatu.  Vyjednal společnou sílu s východními sousedy Maďarů, Pečeněgy, a uvěznil byzantského vyslance Lea Magistera, aby propuštění zajatců oddálil až po tažení proti Maďarům.[44]  To by mu umožnilo znovu vyjednat mírové podmínky ve svůj prospěch.  Ve výměně dopisů s vyslancem Simeon odmítl propustit zajatce a zesměšnil astrologické schopnosti Lva VI.[15][45]

Simeon využil vpád Maďarů do zemí sousedních Slovanů v roce 896 jako casus belli a zamířil proti Maďarům spolu se svými pečeněskými spojenci, zcela je porazil[46] v bitvě na jižním Buhu a přiměl je navždy opustit Etelköz a usadit se v Panonie.[8][15] Po porážce Maďarů Simeon nakonec propustil byzantské zajatce výměnou za Bulhary zajaté v roce 895.[15]
Simeon tvrdil, že ne všichni vězni byli propuštěni,[46] v létě roku 896 znovu napadl Byzanc a zamířil přímo do Konstantinopole.[47] V Thrákii se s ním setkala narychlo sestavená byzantská armáda, ale zničil byzantské síly v bitvě u Bulgarophygon (u moderního Babaeski, Turecko).[15][48] Vyzbrojením arabských zajatců a jejich odesláním do boje s Bulhary jako zoufalým opatřením se Lvu VI. podařilo odrazit Bulhary od Konstantinopole, který obléhali.[15][49] Válka skončila mírovou smlouvou, která formálně trvala až do smrti Lva VI v roce 912[8] a podle níž byla Byzanc povinna platit Bulharsku roční tribut.[50] Podle smlouvy Byzantinci také postoupili území mezi Černým mořem a Strandžou Bulharské říši.[51] Mezitím Simeon také uvalil svou pravomoc nad Srbskem výměnou za uznání Petara Gojnikoviće jako jejich vládce.[52]
Simeon často porušoval mírovou smlouvu s Byzancí, několikrát napadl a dobyl byzantské území,[53] jako například v roce 904, kdy Bulharské nájezdy využili Arabové vedení byzantským odpadlíkem Leem z Tripolisu k námořnímu tažení a dobytí Soluně. .[54] Poté, co město vyplenili Arabové, bylo pro Bulharsko a blízké slovanské kmeny snadným cílem. Aby odradil Simeona od dobytí města a jeho osídlení Slovany,[15][55] Lev VI. byl nucen učinit další územní ústupky Bulharům v moderní oblasti Makedonie. Smlouvou z roku 904 byly všechny Slovany obývané země v moderní jižní Makedonii a jižní Albánii postoupeny Bulharské říši,[8][56] s hraniční linií probíhající asi 20 kilometrů severně od Soluně.[57]

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Uznání jako císař

Smrt Lva VI dne 11. května 912 a nástup jeho malého syna Konstantina VII. pod vedením Lova bratra Alexandra, který vyhnal Lovu manželku Zoe z paláce, představovaly pro Simeona skvělou příležitost pokusit se o další tažení proti Konstantinopoli, dobytí.  který zůstal jeho životním snem.  Na jaře roku 913 byli Simeonovi vyslanci, kteří dorazili do Konstantinopole, aby obnovili mír z roku 896, posláni pryč Alexandrem, který odmítl platit každoroční tribut a naléhal na Simeona, aby se připravil na válku.[58]

“ Simeon byl bulharský Karel Veliký, ale byl vzdělanější než náš Karel Veliký a mnohem větší než on, protože položil základy literatury, která patřila lidu.[59] “
—Alfred Nicolas Rambaud, francouzský historik
Než mohl Simeon zaútočit, Alexander zemřel 6. června 913 a nechal říši v rukou regentské rady v čele s patriarchou Nicholasem Mystikosem.[60] Mnoho obyvatel Konstantinopole mladého císaře nepoznávalo a podporovalo předstíraného Konstantina Doukase,[61] což, posílené povstáními v jižní Itálii a plánovanou arabskou invazí do východní Anatolie, bylo Simeonovi ku prospěchu.[62] Nicholas Mystikos se pokusil odradit Simeona od invaze do Byzance v dlouhé sérii prosebných dopisů, ale bulharský vládce přesto koncem července nebo srpna 913 zaútočil plnou silou a bez vážnějšího odporu dosáhl Konstantinopole.[63] Nicméně, anarchie v Konstantinopoli přestala po vraždě uchazeče Constantine Doukas a vláda byla rychle vytvořena s patriarchou Nicholas u kormidla.[64] To Simeona nutilo, aby zvedl své obležení a zahájil mírová jednání, k radosti Byzantinců.[64] Vleklé jednání vyústilo v zaplacení nedoplatků byzantského tributu,[65] slib, že Konstantin VII. by se měl oženit s jednou ze Simeonových dcer[15][63], a hlavně oficiální uznání Simeona za bulharského císaře patriarchou Nicholasem[ 66][67] v paláci Blachernai.

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Krátce po Simeonově návštěvě Konstantinopole se Constantinova matka Zoe na naléhání mladého císaře vrátila do paláce a okamžitě přistoupila k likvidaci regentů. Prostřednictvím spiknutí se jí v únoru 914 podařilo převzít moc, prakticky odstranit patriarchu Nicholase z vlády, popřít a zatemnit jeho uznání Simeonova císařského titulu[68] a zamítnout plánovaný sňatek svého syna s jednou ze Simeonových dcer.[69] Simeon se musel uchýlit k válce, aby dosáhl svých cílů. V létě 914 napadl Thrákii a dobyl Adrianopol. Zoe rychle poslala Simeonovi četné dárky, aby ho usmířila, a podařilo se jí ho přesvědčit, aby se vzdal Adrianopole a stáhl svou armádu. V následujících letech se Simeonovy síly angažovaly v severozápadních byzantských provinciích, v okolí Drače (Durrës) a Soluně, ale proti Konstantinopoli nepostoupily.[70]

Vítězství u Acheloos a Katasyrtai

V roce 917 se Simeon připravoval na další válku proti Byzanci. Pokusil se uzavřít protibyzantskou unii s Pečeněgy, ale jeho vyslanci se finančními zdroji Byzantinců, kterým se podařilo přebít, nemohli rovnat.[71] Byzantinci zahájili rozsáhlou kampaň proti Bulharsku a také se pokusili přesvědčit srbského prince Petara Gojnikoviće, aby zaútočil na Bulhary s maďarskou podporou.[72]
V roce 917 zvláště silná byzantská armáda vedená Lvem Phokasem starším, synem Nikeforose Phokase, vtrhla do Bulharska doprovázená byzantským námořnictvem pod velením Romanose Lekapenose, které se plavilo do bulharských černomořských přístavů. Na cestě do Mesembrie (Nesebǎr), kde měly být posíleny jednotkami přepravenými námořnictvem, se Phokasovy síly zastavily k odpočinku poblíž řeky Acheloos, nedaleko přístavu Anchialos (Pomorie).[73][74 ] Jakmile byl Simeon informován o invazi, spěchal zachytit Byzantince a zaútočil na ně z okolních kopců, zatímco oni odpočívali neorganizovaně. V bitvě u Acheloos z 20. srpna 917, jedné z největších ve středověké historii,[75] Bulhaři zcela porazili Byzantince a zabili mnoho jejich velitelů, ačkoli se Phokasovi podařilo uprchnout do Mesembrie.[76] O desetiletí později Leo Diacon napsal, že „hromady kostí lze ještě dnes vidět u řeky Acheloos, kde byla tehdy neslavně zabita prchající armáda Byzantinců“.[77]

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Plánovaný útok Pečeněhů ze severu také selhal, protože Pečeněgové se pohádali s admirálem Lekapenosem, který je odmítl přepravit přes Dunaj na pomoc hlavní byzantské armádě.[73] Byzantincům nepomohli ani Srbové a Maďaři: Maďaři se angažovali v západní Evropě jako franští spojenci a Srbové pod vedením Petara Gojnikoviće se zdráhali zaútočit na Bulharsko, protože bulharský spojenec Mihailo Višević ze Zahumlje oznámil Simeonovi jejich plány.[79] ]

Simeonova armáda rychle navázala na vítězství Acheloos dalším úspěchem.[63]  Bulhaři vyslaní pronásledovat zbytky byzantské armády se přiblížili ke Konstantinopoli a ve vesnici Katasyrtai v bezprostřední blízkosti Konstantinopole narazili na byzantské síly pod vedením Lva Phokase, který se vrátil do hlavního města.[80]  Bulharské pluky zaútočily a znovu porazily Byzantince a zničily některé z jejich posledních jednotek před návratem do Bulharska.[81]

Potlačení srbských nepokojů a pozdních tažení proti Byzanci
Bezprostředně po tomto tažení se Simeon snažil potrestat srbského vládce Petara Gojnikoviće, který se ho pokusil zradit uzavřením spojenectví s Byzantinci.[8] Simeon poslal armádu vedenou dvěma svými veliteli, Theodorem Sigricou a Marmaisem, do Srbska. Těm dvěma se podařilo přesvědčit Petara, aby se zúčastnil osobní schůzky, během níž byl spoután a odvezen do Bulharska, kde zemřel v žaláři. Simeon dosadil na srbský trůn Pavla Branoviće, před tím exulantem v Bulharsku, a tím na chvíli obnovil bulharský vliv v Srbsku.[82]

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Meanwhile, the Byzantine military failures forced another change of government in Constantinople: the admiral Romanos Lekapenos replaced Zoe as regent of the young Constantine VII in 919, forcing her back into a convent. Romanos betrothed his daughter Helena Lekapene to Constantine and advanced to the rank of co-emperor in December 920, effectively assuming the government of the empire,[83][84] which was largely what Simeon had planned to do.[85]

No longer able to climb to the Byzantine throne by diplomatic means, the infuriated Simeon once again had to wage war to impose his will. Between 920 and 922, Bulgaria increased its pressure on Byzantium, campaigning in the west through Thessaly reaching the Isthmus of Corinth and in the east in Thrace, reaching and crossing the Dardanelles to lay siege on the town of Lampsacus.[15][86] Simeon's forces appeared before Constantinople in 921, when they demanded the deposition of Romanos and captured Adrianople, and 922, when they were victorious at Pigae, burned much of the Golden Horn and seized Bizye.[87][88] In the meantime, the Byzantines attempted to ignite Serbia against Simeon, but he substituted Pavle with Zaharije Pribisavljević, a former refugee at Constantinople that he had captured.[15][87]

Desperate to conquer Constantinople, Simeon planned a large campaign in 924 and sent envoys to the Fatimid caliph Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah, who possessed a powerful navy which Simeon needed. The caliph agreed and sent his own representatives back with the Bulgarians to arrange the alliance. However, the envoys were captured by the Byzantines at Calabria. Romanos offered peace to the Arabs, supplementing this offer with generous gifts, and ruined their union with Bulgaria.[15][89]

In Serbia, Zaharije was persuaded by the Byzantines to revolt against Simeon. Zaharije was supported by many Bulgarians exhausted from Simeon's endless campaigns against Byzantium.[90] The Bulgarian emperor sent his troops under Sigrica and Marmais, but they were routed and the two commanders beheaded, which forced Simeon to conclude an armistice with Byzantium in order to concentrate on the suppression of the uprising. Simeon sent an army led by Časlav Klonimirović in 924 to depose Zaharije. He was successful, as Zaharije fled to Croatia. After this victory, the Serbian nobility was invited to come to Bulgaria and bow to the new Prince. However, he did not appear at the supposed meeting and all of them were beheaded. Bulgaria annexed Serbia directly.[15][91]

In the summer of 924, Simeon nevertheless arrived at Constantinople and demanded to see the patriarch and the emperor. He conversed with Romanos on the Golden Horn on 9 September 924 and arranged a truce, according to which Byzantium would pay Bulgaria an annual tax, but would be ceded back some cities on the Black Sea coast.[92] During the interview of the two monarchs, two eagles are said to have met in the skies above and then to have parted, one of them flying over Constantinople and the other heading to Thrace, as a sign of the irreconcilability of the two rulers.[93] In his description of this meeting, Theophanes Continuatus mentions that "the two emperors… conversed", which may indicate renewed Byzantine recognition of Simeon's imperial claims.[94]

War with Croatia and death

Most likely after (or possibly at the time of) Patriarch Nicholas' death in 925, Simeon raised the status of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church to a patriarchate.[95] This may be linked to Simeon's diplomatic relations with the Papacy between 924 and 926, during which he demanded and received Pope John X's recognition of his title as "Emperor of the Romans", truly equal to the Byzantine emperor, and possibly the confirmation of a patriarchal dignity for the head of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church.[96]

In 926, Simeon's troops under Alogobotur invaded Croatia, at the time a Byzantine ally, but were completely defeated by the army of King Tomislav in the Battle of the Bosnian Highlands.[8] Fearing a Bulgarian retribution, Tomislav accepted to abandon his union with Byzantium and make peace on the basis of the status quo, negotiated by the papal legate Madalbert.[97][98] In the last months of his life, Simeon prepared for another siege of Constantinople[86] despite Romanos' desperate pleas for peace.[99]

On 27 May 927, Simeon died of heart failure in his palace in Preslav. Byzantine chroniclers tie his death to a legend, according to which Romanos decapitated a statue which was Simeon's inanimate double, and he died at that very hour.[100][101]

He was succeeded by his son Peter I, with George Sursuvul, the new emperor's maternal uncle, initially acting as a regent.[86] As part of the peace treaty which Bulgaria and Byzantium signed in October 927 and Peter's marriage to Maria (Eirene), Romanos' granddaughter, the existing borders were confirmed, as were the Bulgarian ruler's imperial dignity and the head of the Bulgarian Church's patriarchal status.[102]

Culture and religion

During Simeon's reign, Bulgaria reached its cultural apogee, becoming the literary and spiritual centre of Slavic Europe.[3][104] In this respect, Simeon continued his father Boris' policy of establishing and spreading Slavic culture and attracting noted scholars and writers within Bulgaria's borders. It was in the Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School, founded under Boris, that the main literary work in Bulgaria was concentrated during the reign of Simeon.[105]

“ A new Ptolemy as he presented himself to them,

but not in faith — in desire mostly,

and due to his collection of all

divine and most precious books,

with which his palaces he'd filled,

he earned himself eternal memory.[103]

”

— Praise to Tsar Simeon by an anonymous contemporary of the tsar

The late 9th and early 10th century constitute the earliest and most productive period of medieval Bulgarian literature.[105] Having spent his early years in Constantinople, Simeon introduced Byzantine culture to the Bulgarian court, but eliminated its assimilative effect by means of military power and religious autonomy.[105] The disciples of Cyril and Methodius, among whom Clement of Ohrid, Naum and Constantine of Preslav, continued their educational work in Bulgaria, actively translating Christian texts, such as the Bible and the works of John Chrysostom, Basil of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria, Gregory of Nazianzus, Athanasius of Alexandria, as well as historic chronicles such as these of John Malalas and George Hamartolus, to Bulgarian.[105] The reign of Simeon also witnessed the production of a number of original theological and secular works, such as John Exarch's Six Days (Šestodnev), Constantine of Preslav's Alphabetical Prayer and Proclamation of the Holy Gospels, and Černorizec Hrabǎr's An Account of Letters.[105] Simeon's own contribution to this literary blossoming was praised by his contemporaries, for example in the Praise to Tsar Simeon preserved in the Zlatostruj collection and Simeon's Collection,[104] to which the tsar personally wrote an addendum.[106]

Simeon turned the new Bulgarian capital Preslav into a magnificent religious and cultural centre, intended more as a display of his realm's heyday and as a royal residence than as a military fortress.[104] With its more than twenty cross-domed churches and numerous monasteries, its impressive royal palace and the royal Golden (or Round) Basilica, Preslav was a true imperial capital.[104] The development of Bulgarian art in the period is demonstrated by a ceramic icon of Theodore of Amasea and the Preslav-style illustrated ceramics.[107]

Family

Simeon was married twice. By his first wife, whose identity is unknown, Simeon had a son called Michael,[108] who was born before 913. He was excluded from the succession in 927 and sent to a monastery. He died in 931, shortly after organizing a revolt.[86]

By his second wife, the daughter of the influential noble George Sursuvul, he had three sons: Peter, who succeeded as Emperor of Bulgaria in 927 and ruled until 969; Ivan, who rebelled against Peter in 928 and then fled to Byzantium;[86] and Benjamin (Bajan), who, according to Lombard historian Liutprand of Cremona, "possessed the power to transform himself suddenly into a wolf or other strange animal".[109]

Simeon also had several daughters, including one who was arranged to marry Constantine VII in 913, and was thus born before that date.[86] The marriage was annulled by Constantine's mother Zoe once she had returned to the court.[110]

Family tree of Simeon I[111

Boris I

(d. 907, ruled 852—889) Maria

Vladimir

(ruled 889–893) Gabriel (Gavril) Jacob (Jakov) Eupraxia (Evpraksija) Anna

 	1

unknown wife Simeon I

(b. 864/865, d. 927,

ruled 893–927) 2

daughter of

George Sursuvul

 	 1 	 2 	 2 	 2 	 ?

Michael
(d. 931) Peter I

(b. after 912, d. 970,

ruled 927–969) Ivan Benjamin daughters

Legacy and popular culture

Tsar Simeon I has remained among the most highly valued Bulgarian historical figures, as indicated by popular vote in the Velikite Bǎlgari (a spin-off of 100 Greatest Britons) television programme, which in February 2007 placed him fourth among the greatest Bulgarians ever.[112] The last Bulgarian monarch, Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, was named after Simeon I.[113] A brand of high-quality grape rakija, Car Simeon Veliki, also bears his name,[114] and an Antarctic peak on Livingston Island of the South Shetland Islands was named Simeon Peak in his honour by the Antarctic Place-names Commission.[115]

Simeon the Great has also been regularly featured in fiction. Bulgarian national writer Ivan Vazov dedicated a children's patriotic poem to him, "Car Simeon", and it was later arranged as a song, "Kraj Bosfora šum se vdiga" ("A Clamor Rises by the Bosphorus").[116] An eleven-episode drama series filmed in 1984, Zlatnijat vek (Golden Age), retells the story of Simeon's reign. In the series, the tsar is played by Marius Donkin.[117] A historical drama play called Car Simeon — Zlatnijat vek and produced by Stefan Stajčev, director of the Silistra Theatre, debuted in December 2006. Ivan Samokovliev stars in the part of Simeon.[118]

Footnotes

1. ^ For example in Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans.
2. ^ This article uses the United Nations-authorized scientific transliteration system to romanize Bulgarian Cyrillic. For details, see Romanization of Bulgarian.
3. ^ a b Lalkov, Rulers of Bulgaria, pp. 23–25.
4. ^ (in Bulgarian) Enciklopedija Bǎlgarija. Akademično izdatelstvo "Marin Drinov". 1988. OCLC 75865504.
5. ^ "The First Bulgarian Empire". Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556147_8/Bulgaria.html#p48. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
6. ^ Hart, Nancy (PDF). Bulgarian Art and Culture: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. University of Texas at Austin. pp. 21. http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/creees/content/outreach/fulbrigh.... Retrieved 2007-03-03.
7. ^ Weigand, Gustav (1924). "1 Istoriko-geografski obzor: 4 Srednovekovie" (in Bulgarian). Etnografija na Makedonija. trans. Elena Pipiševa. Leipzig: Friedrich Brandstetter. http://knigite.abv.bg/gw/gw_1_4.html.
8. ^ a b c d e f g h Bakalov, Istorija na Bǎlgarija, "Simeon I Veliki".
9. ^ "About Bulgaria" (PDF). U.S. Embassy Sofia, Bulgaria. http://sofia.usembassy.gov/uploads/images/9slwbq67Sfo4dBuR2WMVfg/ab.... Retrieved 2007-03-03.
10. ^ Castellan, Georges (1999) (in Bulgarian). Istorija na Balkanite XIV–XX vek. trans. Liljana Caneva. Plovdiv: Hermes. pp. 37. ISBN 954-459-901-0.
11. ^ "Цѣсарь Блъгарѡмъ". Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 367.
12. ^ a b c d Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 280.
13. ^ Dimitrov, Božidar. "Hramǎt “Sveti Četirideset mǎčenici”" (in Bulgarian). National Historical Museum. http://www.historymuseum.org/upload/fck_editor/40%20mazenizi(6).htm.... Retrieved 2007-03-07.
14. ^ a b c d e Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 132.
15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.
16. ^ "From the Greek form of the Hebrew name שִׁמְעוֹן (Shim'on) which meant "hearkening" or "listening"." Campbell, Mike. "Biblical Names". Behind the Name. http://www.behindthename.com/nmc/bibl2.php. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
17. ^ "Hunc etenim Simeonem emiargon, id est semigrecum, esse aiebant, eo quod a puericia Bizantii Demostenis rhetoricam Aristotelisque sillogismos didicerit". Liutprand of Cremona. Antapodosis, cap. 29, p. 66. Cited in Drinov, Marin (1876) (in Russian). Južnye slavjane i Vizantija v X veke. pp. 374.
18. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 132.

• Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.
• Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 282.

1. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 281.
2. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 133.
3. ^ This is not to be understood literally, as the mouth of the Tiča lies to the east, on the Black Sea coast. Researchers link the word ustie ("river mouth") in the sources to a narrow section of the river or to the Ustie pass near the city. Nikolova, Bistra (2002). "Veliki Preslav" (in Bulgarian). Pravoslavnite cǎrkvi prez Bǎlgarskoto srednovekovie. Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. pp. 88. ISBN 954-430-762-1.
4. ^ Annales Fuldenses, p. 408. Cited in Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 133.
5. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 283.
6. ^ Todt, Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon.
7. ^ Crampton, R.J. (2005). "The Reign of Simeon the Great (893–927)". A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–17. ISBN 0521850851.
8. ^ Kalojanov, Ančo (2005-05-11). "Slavjanskata pravoslavna civilizacija" (in Bulgarian). http://liternet.bg/publish/akaloianov/civilizacia.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
9. ^ John Skylitzes. Skylitzes–Kedrenos, II, p. 254.4–16
10. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 144–145.
11. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 289.
12. ^ Theophanes Continuatus, p. 312., cited in Vasil'ev, A. (1902) (in Russian). Vizantija i araby, II. pp. 88, p. 104, pp. 108–111.
13. ^ a b c Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 198.
14. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 289–291.
15. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 145.
16. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 294–295.
17. ^ a b Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 146.
18. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 295.
19. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 296–297.
20. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 297.
21. ^ According to toponymic evidence. Kuun, Géza (1895) (in Latin). Relationum Hungarorum cum oriente gentibusque originis historia antiquissima. pp. 23.
22. ^ a b Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 298–299.
23. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 199.
24. ^ Bakalov, Istorija na Bǎlgarija, "Simeon I Veliki".

• Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.
• Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 199.

1. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 301–304.
2. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 304.
3. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 304–311.
4. ^ a b Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 147.
5. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 315.
6. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 316.
7. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 317.
8. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 148.
9. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 318–321.
10. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 141.
11. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 321.
12. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 324.
13. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 152.
14. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 334–337.
15. ^ "In the year 6412 since the creation of the world, indict 7 (904). Border between Byzantines and Bulgarians. In the time of Simeon, by the grace of God Prince of
16. the Bulgarians, under Olgu Tarkan Theodore and under Komit Drista." Border marking inscription from Narǎš (modern Greece). Uspenskij, F.I. (1898). "Pograničnyj stolb meždu Vizantiej i Bolgariej pri Simeone" (in Russian). Izvestija russkogo arheologičeskogo instituta v Konstantinopole: 184–194.
17. ^ Todt, Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon.

• Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 155.
• Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 352.
• Bǎlgarite i Bǎlgarija, 1.2.

1. ^ Cited in Dimitrov, Bulgaria: illustrated history.
2. ^ Todt, Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon.

• Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 155.
• Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 212.

1. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 156.
2. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 353.
3. ^ a b c Bǎlgarite i Bǎlgarija, 1.2.
4. ^ a b Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 359.
5. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 157.
6. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, pp. 144–148.
7. ^ Ostrogorsky, George (1935). "Avtokrator i samodržac" (in Serbian). Glas Srpske kraljevske akademije (CLXIV): 95–187.
8. ^ Loud, G.A. (1978). "A re-examination of the ‘coronation’ of Symeon of Bulgaria in 913". The Journal of Theological Studies (Oxford University Press) xxix (XXIX): 109–120. doi:10.1093/jts/XXIX.1.109.
9. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 367–368.
10. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 158–159.
11. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 159.
12. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 375–376.
13. ^ a b Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 160–161.
14. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 376–377.
15. ^ Dimitrov, Bulgaria: illustrated history.
16. ^ Theophanes Continuatus, trans. Paul Stephenson. "Symeon of Bulgaria wins the Battle of Acheloos, 917". http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/theocont2.html. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
17. ^ Leo the Deacon, History, p. 12410–12. Cited in Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 216.
18. ^ According to Čolpanov, Boris (1988) (in Bulgarian). Slavata na Bǎlgarija: istoriko-hudožestven očerk. Sofia: Voenno izdatelstvo. OCLC 22276650.
19. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 370.
20. ^ De Boor, Сarl Gothard (1888). Vita Euthymii. Berlin: Reimer. pp. 214.
21. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 382.
22. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 385–386.
23. ^ Alexander Kazhdan, ed (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press.
24. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 163.
25. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 217.
26. ^ a b c d e f Cawley, Charles (2006–2007). "Bulgaria: Symeon I 893–927". Medieval Lands. Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/BULGARIA.htm#_Toc137439346.
27. ^ a b Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 164–165.
28. ^ Vita S. Mariae Junioris.
29. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 168–169.
30. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 446–447.
31. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 459.
32. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 169–172.
33. ^ Theophanes Continuatus, pp. 405–407.
34. ^ "tôn basileôn omilountôn". Discussed in Stephenson, Paul. "The peace agreed between Romanos Lekapenos and Symeon of Bulgaria, AD 924 (translation of Theophanes Continuatus)". http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/theocont3.html. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
35. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 156.
36. ^ Mladjov, Ian (1999). "Between Byzantium and Rome: Bulgaria and the West in the Aftermath of the Photian Schism". Byzantine Studies/Études Byzantines: 173–181.
37. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 225.
38. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 176.
39. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 489–491.
40. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 176–77.
41. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 226–227.
42. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans.
43. ^ Ivanova, "Pohvala za car Simeon", Tǎržestvo na slovoto.
44. ^ a b c d Delev, Zlatnijat vek na bǎlgarskata kultura.
45. ^ a b c d e Ivanova, "Introduction", Tǎržestvo na slovoto.
46. ^ Ivanova, "Pribavka ot samija hristoljubiv car Simeon", Tǎržestvo na slovoto.
47. ^ "Risuvana keramika". Muzej Preslav. http://www.museum-preslav.com/colectr.html. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
48. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 160.
49. ^ Antapodosis, p. 309.
50. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 148.
51. ^ Cawley, Medieval Lands.

• Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 280, p. 495.
• Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 133, p. 177.

1. ^ "Vasil Levski beše izbran za naj-velikija bǎlgarin na vsički vremena" (in Bulgarian). Velikite Bǎlgari. 2007-02-18. http://velikite.bg/index.php?p=4&id=58. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
2. ^ "Simeon Sakskoburggotski (Car Simeon Vtori)" (in Bulgarian). OMDA.bg. http://www.omda.bg/bulg/news/personal/simeon.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
3. ^ "Grozdova rakija: Car Simeon Veliki" (in Bulgarian). Vinex. http://www.vinexbg.com/bg/main/grape-brandy/brandy.html. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
4. ^ "Bulgarian Antarctic Gazetteer: Simeon Peak". Antarctic Place-names Commission. Republic of Bulgaria, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. http://apc.mfa.government.bg/peaks/simeon.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
5. ^ "Večnite pesni na Bǎlgarija" (in Bulgarian). Novoto vreme. http://www.novotovreme.bg/?cid=15&spid=126&PHPSESSID=f48bebc98a0238.... Retrieved 2007-03-25.
6. ^ ""Zlatniyat vek" (1984)". IMDb. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0369188/. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
7. ^ "Tazi večer v Silistra e premierata na grandioznija istoričeski spektakǎl "Zlatnijat vek — Car Simeon Veliki"" (in Bulgarian). bTV Novinite. 2006-12-07. http://btv.bg/news/?magic=bulgaria&story=54704&page=2. Retrieved 2007-03-25.

References:

1. Bakalov, Georgi; Milen Kumanov (2003) (in Bulgarian). Elektronno izdanie – Istorija na Bǎlgarija. Sofia: Trud, Sirma. ISBN 9844830679. OCLC 62020465.
2. Bogdanov, Ivan (1973) (in Bulgarian). Simeon Veliki — epoha i ličnost. Sofia. OCLC 71590049.
3. Bozhilov, Ivan (1983) (in Bulgarian). Car Simeon Veliki (893–927) — zlatnijat vek na srednovekovna Bǎlgarija. Sofia: Izdatelstvo na Otečestvenija front. OCLC 1323835.
4. Tsanev, Stefan (2006). "10 (889–912) Zlatnijat vek. Knjaz Rasate-Vladimir, car Simeon Veliki; 11 (912–927) Kǎrvavijat vek. Simeon — car na bǎlgari i romei" (in Bulgarian). Bǎlgarski hroniki. Sofia, Plovdiv: Trud, Žanet 45. ISBN 954-528-610-5.
5. Delev, Petǎr; Valeri Kacunov, Plamen Mitev, Evgeniya Kalinova, Iskra Baeva, Boian Dobrev (2006). "9 Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri Car Simeon; 10 Zlatnijat vek na bǎlgarskata kultura" (in Bulgarian). Istorija i civilizacija za 11. klas. Trud, Sirma. ISBN 9549926729.
6. Dimitrov, Bozhidar (1994). "Bulgaria — a predominant power in the European East 893–967 AD". Bulgaria: illustrated history. Sofia: Borina. ISBN 9545000449.
7. Fine, Jr., John V.A. (1991). "5 Bulgaria under Simeon, 893–927". The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472081493.
8. Ivanova, Klimentina; Svetlina Nikolova (1995) (in Bulgarian). Tǎržestvo na slovoto. Zlatnijat vek na bǎlgarskata knižnina. Sofia: Agata-A. ISBN 9789545400056. http://www.promacedonia.org/zv/.
9. Lalkov, Milcho (1997). "Tsar Simeon the Great (893–927)". Rulers of Bulgaria. Kibea. ISBN 954-474-098-8.
10. Runciman, Steven (1930). "Emperor of the Bulgars and the Romans". A history of the First Bulgarian Empire. London: George Bell & Sons. OCLC 832687. http://www.promacedonia.org/en/sr/sr_3_1.htm.
11. Todt, Klaus-Peter (1996). "Symeon, Zar und bedeutendster Herrscher des ersten bulgarischen Reiches" (in German). Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon. Traugott Bautz. ISBN 3-88309-064-6.
12. Zlatarski, Vasil (1971) [1927]. "2 Ot slavjanizacijata na dǎržavata do padaneto na Pǎrvoto carstvo (852–1018): 4 Borba s Vizantija za političesko nadmoštie" (in Bulgarian). Istorija na bǎlgarskata dǎržava prez srednite vekove. Tom I. Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo (2 ed.). Sofia: Nauka i izkustvo. OCLC 67080314. http://www.promacedonia.org/vz1b/index.html.
13. "1.2 Bǎlgarite stavat hristijani. Izborǎt na knjaz Boris I" (in Bulgarian). Bǎlgarite i Bǎlgarija. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bulgaria, Trud, Sirma. 2005.

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BIOGRAPHY: b. 864/865

d. May 27, 927

byname SIMEON THE GREAT, tsar of the first Bulgarian empire (925-927), a warlike sovereign who nevertheless made his court a cultural centre.

Educated in Constantinople (now Istanbul), Simeon succeeded his father, Boris I, in 893 after the short intervening reign (889-893) of his dissolute elder brother, Vladimir.

His dominant ambition, which was to himself ascend the imperial throne of Byzantium--an aspiration afterward shared by many Bulgarian tsars--led Simeon to embark on many wars with the Byzantine Empire (894, 896, 913, 917, 923). He never took Constantinople, although it was more than once at his mercy; but he took for himself the title of "Tsar of All the Bulgarians" (925) and raised the archbishop of Bulgaria to the rank of a patriarch. In the Balkans he extended the power of Bulgaria over south Macedonia, south Albania, and Serbia, which became his vassal; but Bulgaria's dominion north of the Danube was probably lost during his reign. Simeon was twice married and left four sons, of whom the second, Peter I, succeeded him.

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