Samuel, tsar of Bulgaria

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_of_Bulgaria

http://genealogics.org/getperson.php?personID=I00332107&tree=LEO

Reign 997 – 6 October 1014 Died 6 October 1014(1014-10-06) Place of death Prilep, First Bulgarian Empire, present-day Republic of Macedonia Predecessor Roman of Bulgaria Successor Gavril Radomir

• Consort

1. Kosara,
2. Agatha

• Offspring

1. Gavril Radomir
2. Theodora Kosara
3. Miroslava
4. Katun Anastazya

Royal House Cometopuli

• Father Comita Nikola
• Mother Ripsimia of Armenia

--------------------------------------------------------

Samuel[1] (also Samuil representing Bulgarian: Самуил, pronounced [samu%CB%88il]%29 was the Emperor (Tsar) of the First Bulgarian Empire from 997 to 6 October 1014. From 980[2] to 997, he was a general for Roman I of Bulgaria, the second surviving son of Emperor Peter I of Bulgaria, and co-ruled with him, as Roman bestowed him command of the army and the real authority.[3] Samuel struggled to preserve his country's independence from the Byzantine Empire. His rule was characterized by constant warfare against the Byzantines and their similarly ambitious ruler Basil II.

In his early years Samuel managed to inflict several major defeats on the Byzantines and to launch offensive campaigns on their territory.[4] In the late 10th century, the Bulgarian armies conquered the Serb principality of Duklja[5] and led campaigns against the Kingdoms of Croatia and Hungary. But from 1001, he was forced mainly to defend the Empire against the superior Byzantine armies. Samuel died of a heart attack on 6 October 1014, two months after the catastrophe at Kleidion, and Bulgaria was fully subjugated by Basil II four years later.[6]

Samuel was considered "invincible in power and unsurpassable in strength".[7][8] Similar comment was made even in Constantinople, where John Kyriotes Geometres penned a poem offering a punning comparison between the Bulgarian Emperor and a comet which appeared in 989.[9][10]

During Samuel's reign, Bulgaria gained control of most of the Balkans (except Thrace) and southern Greece. He moved the capital from Skopje to Ohrid[11][4], which had been the cultural and military centre of southwestern Bulgaria since Boris I's rule.[12] He also made the city the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. Although Samuel's reign brought the end of the First Bulgarian Empire, he is regarded as a heroic ruler in Bulgaria.[13][14]

Contents

1 The Cometopuli

1.1 Death of Aaron and Samuel's ascent to power

2 Co-rule with Roman

3 Emperor

3.1 War against Serbs and Croats

3.2 Advance of the Byzantines

3.3 War with Hungary

3.4 Further Byzantine successes

3.5 Disaster at Kleidion

4 Aftermath

5 Family

6 Grave

7 Nomenclature

8 Legacy

9 See also

10 References

11 External links

12 Footnotes

The Cometopuli

Samuel was the fourth[15] and youngest son of Comita Nikola, most likely Count of Sredets (Sofia)[16] and the Armenian[17] princess[18] Ripsimia.[19] His father, who had close ties to the royal court in Preslav[20], died in 970. At that time there was no Emperor in Preslav as Peter I had died on 30 January 970 and his sons Boris and Roman were in Constantinople.[21]

In the same year[22] Samuel and his three brothers David, Moses and Aaron rebelled against John I Tzimisces's campaign that aimed to "liberate" Bulgaria from the Kievan Rus', which they saw as an attempt by Byzantium to seize power in Bulgaria.[23] Indeed the following year, the Byzantines deceived[24] Boris II and forced him to abdicate in Constantinople.[25] Although Tzimisces announced the annexation[26] of Bulgaria, he only controlled the northeastern half of the country, including the capital Preslav and the seat of patriarchate Drastar (Silistra).[27][28] The lands west of the Iskar River[29][30] remained under the control of the four brothers, who were called Cometopuli (Kometopouloi, i.e., "the sons of the Count") in Byzantine sources.[31] In 973, the Cometopuli sent envoys to the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I in Quedlinburg in an attempt to secure the protection of their lands.[32]

The brothers ruled together in a tetrarchy.[33] David ruled the southernmost regions and led the defense of one of the most dangerous border areas, around Thessaloniki and Thessaly.[33] The centres of his possessions were Prespa and Kastoria. Moses ruled from Strumitsa,[33] which would be a base for attacks on the Aegean coast and Serres. Aaron ruled from Sredets,[33] and was to defend the main road from Adrianople to Belgrade, and to attack Thrace. Samuel ruled northwestern Bulgaria from the strong fortress of Vidin. He was also to organize the liberation of the conquered areas to the east and of Preslav.[34] Some records suggest that David played a major role in this tumultuous period of Bulgarian history.[35]

The Byzantines seize the capital Preslav.Even before the fall of Preslav, the Bulgarians defeated Byzantium's Asian army, led by the eunuch Peter, on the outskirts of Plovdiv in 970.[36] From 971 to 975, there were many skirmishes and minor battles, and the Bulgarian detachments harassed the Byzantine possessions in the Balkans.[37] After John I Tzimiskes died on 11 January 976, the Cometopuli launched an assault along the whole border. But within the first weeks David was killed by Vlach vagrants and Moses was fatally injured by a stone during the siege of Serres.[38]Moses died in 986. [39]

Their actions to the south detained many Byzantine troops and eased Samuel's liberation of northeastern Bulgaria; the Byzantine commander was defeated and retreated to Crimea.[40][41] Any Bulgarian nobles and officials who had not opposed the Byzantine conquest of the region were executed, and the war continued north of the Danube until the enemy was scattered and Bulgarian rule was restored.[42]

Death of Aaron and Samuel's ascent to power

After its serious defeats in the Balkans, the Byzantine Empire descended into civil war. The commander of the Asian army, Bardas Scleros, rebelled in Asia Minor and sent troops under his son Romanus in Thrace to besiege Constantinople. The new Emperor Basil II did not have enough manpower to fight both the Bulgarians and the rebels and resorted to treason, conspiracy and complicated diplomatic plots.[43]

During the civil wars in the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians not only regained their positions on the Balkans, but advanced deep into enemy territory.Basil II was making many promises to the Bulgarians and Scleros to divert them from allying against him.[44] Aaron, the eldest living Comitopulus, was tempted by an alliance with the Byzantines and the opportunity to seize power in Bulgaria for himself. He held land in Thrace, where the Byzantines could threaten it. Basil reached an agreement with Aaron, who asked to marry Basil's sister to seal it. But Basil instead sent the wife of one of his officials with the bishop of Sebaste. The deceit was uncovered and the bishop was killed.[45]

Nonetheless, negotiations proceeded and concluded in a peace agreement. The historian Scylitzes wrote that Aaron wanted sole power and "sympathized with the Romans".[46] Samuel learned of the conspiracy and conflict between the two brothers was inevitable. The quarrel broke out in the vicinity of Dupnitsa on 14 June 976 and ended with the annihilation of Aaron's family. Only his son, Ivan Vladislav, survived because Samuil's son Gavril Radomir pleaded on his behalf.[47] Now, practically all power and authority in the state was with Samuel, and the danger of internal conflict was eliminated.

However, another theory suggests that Aaron participated in the battle of the Gates of Trajan which took place ten years later. According to that theory Aaron was killed on 14 June 987 or 988.[48][49]

Co-rule with Roman

Main article: battle of the Gates of Trajan

The Byzantine cavalry fighting in northern Bulgaria.After the Byzantine plan to use Aaron to cause instability in Bulgaria failed, they tried to encourage the rightful heirs to the throne,[50] Boris II and Roman, to oppose Samuil. Basil II hoped that they would win the support of the nobles and isolate Samuel or perhaps even start a Bulgarian civil war.[51] Boris and Roman were sent back in 986[52] but while they were passing through a forest around the border, Boris was killed by Bulgarian guards who were misled by his Byzantine clothing. Roman, who was walking some distance behind, managed to identify himself to the guards.[53]

Roman was taken to Vidin, where he was proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria.[54] Samuel became his first assistant and general and together they gathered an army and fought the Byzantines.[55] During his captivity, Roman had been castrated on the orders of John I Tzimiskes so that he would not have heirs. Thus, his first assistant, Samuel, was certain to eventually succeed Roman. The new emperor entrusted Samuel with state affairs and became occupied with the church and religion.[56]

As the main efforts of Basil II were concentrated against the rebel Skleros, Samuel's armies easily attacked all European possessions of the Byzantine Empire. He invaded not only Thrace and the area of Thessaloniki, but also Thessaly, Hellas and Peloponnese. Many Byzantine fortresses fell under Bulgarian rule.[57] Samuel wanted to seize the important fortress of Larissa, which controlled the key routes to Thessaly. From 977 to 983, the area around the town was blocked. After starvation forced the Byzantines to surrender[11], the population of the town was deported to the interior of Bulgaria and the males were forced to enlist in the Bulgarian army.[58] Although Basil II sent forces to the region, they were defeated, and the conquest of Thessaly marked the loss of the last Byzantine stronghold in that part of the peninsula. With this victory, Bulgaria had gained influence over the southwestern Balkans. From Larissa, Samuel took the relics of St Achillios, which were laid in a specially built church of the same name on an island in Lake Prespa.[59][60][61]

The Bulgarians defeat the Byzantines in the battle of Thessaloniki.The major successes in the west raised justifiable fears in Constantinople, and after serious preparations, Basil II launched a campaign in the very centre of the Bulgarian Empire[62] to distract Samuel from southern Greece.[63][64] The Byzantine army passed through the mountains around Ihtiman and besieged Sofia in 986. For 20 days, the Byzantine assaults proved fruitless and even disastrous: several times, the Bulgarians came out of the city, slaughtered many enemy soldiers and captured draught animals and horses. Eventually, the Bulgarian troops burned the siege equipment of the invaders. Basil II withdrew to Thrace, but on 17 August 986,[65] while passing through the mountains, the Byzantine army was thoroughly routed at the Trajan's Gate Pass. This was a significant blow for Basil,[66][67] who was one of the few to return to Constantinople; his personal treasure was captured by the victors.[68][69]

After the defeat, the Byzantine Empire descended into a civil war after the rebellion of Bardas Phocas.[70][71][72] Samuil seized the opportunity and began to exert pressure on Thessaloniki.[73][74] Basil II sent a large army to the town and appointed a new governor, Gregorios Taronites,[75] but he was powerless to stop the Bulgarian advance. By 989, the Bulgarian troops had penetrated deep into Byzantine territory[76] and seized many fortresses, including such important cities as Veria and Servia. In the south, the Bulgarians marched throughout Epirus and in the west they seized the area of modern Durrës on the Adriatic Sea.[77][78][79]

The defeat at Spercheios.In 989, Phocas was killed and his followers surrendered, and the following year Basil II reached an agreement with Skleros.[80] The Byzantines focused their attention on Bulgaria,[81] and in 991 counter-attacked.[82][83] The Bulgarian army was defeated and Roman was captured while Samuel managed to escape.[84] The Byzantines conquered some areas; but in 995, the Arabs invaded Asia Minor and Basil II was forced to move many of his troops to combat this new threat. Samuil quickly regained the lost lands and advanced south. In 996, he defeated the Byzantines in the battle of Thessaloniki. During the battle, Thessaloniki's governor, Gregorios, perished and his son Ashot was captured.[85] Inspired, the Bulgarians continued south. They marched through Thessaly, overcame the defensive wall at Thermopylae and entered the Peloponnese, devastating everything on their way.[86]

The Byzantines recovered and an army under Nikephorus Uranos was sent after the Bulgarians. The two armies met near the flooded river of Spercheios. The Byzantines found a place to ford, and on 19 July 996, they surprised the unprepared Bulgarian army and routed it in the battle of Spercheios.[87] Samuel's arm was wounded and he barely escaped captivity; he and his son allegedly pretended to be dead.[88] After nightfall they headed for Bulgaria and walked 400 kilometres (249 mi) home. Research of Samuel's grave suggests that the bone in his arm healed at an angle of 140° but remained crippled.[89]

Emperor

In 997, Roman died in captivity in Constantinople, ending the line of rulers started by Krum. Because of the war with Byzantium, it was dangerous to leave the throne vacant for long, and Samuel was chosen as the new Emperor of Bulgaria because he had the closest relations to the deceased emperor and was Roman's long-standing military commander.[90] The presbyter of Duklja also marked the event: "By that time among the Bulgarian people rose one Samuel, who proclaimed himself Emperor. He led a long war against the Byzantines and expelled them from the whole territory of Bulgaria, so that the Byzantines did not dare to approach it."[91]

"Above the comet scorched the sky, below the comet[oupolos] (Samuil) burns the West."

Byzantine writer John Kyriotes Geometres.[9]

Constantinople would not recognize the new emperor, as for the Byzantines Boris II's abdication symbolized the official end of Bulgaria and Samuel was considered a rebel. Instead Samuel sought recognition from the Pope, which would be a serious blow to the position of the Byzantines in the Balkans and would lessen the influence of the Patriarch of Constantinople thereby benefiting both Rome and Bulgaria. Samuil possibly received his imperial crown from Pope Gregory V.[92]

War against Serbs and Croats

In 998, Samuel launched a major campaign against the Serbian principality of Duklja to prevent an alliance between Prince Jovan Vladimir and the Byzantines. When the Bulgarian troops reached Duklja, the Serbian prince and his people withdrew to the mountains. Samuel left part of the army at the foot of the mountains and led the remaining soldiers to besiege the Ulcinj coastal fortress. In an effort to avoid bloodshed he asked Jovan Vladimir to surrender. After the prince refused, some Serb nobles offered their services to the Bulgarians and, when it became clear that further resistance was fruitless, the Serbs surrendered. Jovan Vladimir was exiled to Samuel's palaces in Prespa.[93]

The wedding of Ashot and Samuil's daughter Miroslava.The Bulgarian troops next went through Dalmatia, took control of Kotor, and journeyed to Dubrovnik. Although they failed to take Dubrovnik, they devastated the surrounding villages. The Bulgarian army then attacked Croatia in support of rebel princes Krešimir III and Gojslav and advanced northwest to Split, Trogir and Zadar, then northeast through Bosnia and Raška and returned to Bulgaria.[93] This Croato-Bulgarian War allowed Samuel to install friendly monarchs in Croatia.

Samuel's daughter Theodora Kosara fell in love with the captive Jovan Vladimir. The couple married after gaining Samuil's approval, and Jovan returned to his lands as a Bulgarian official along with his uncle Dragomir, whom Samuel trusted.[94] Meanwhile, Princess Miroslava fell in love with the Byzantine noble captive Ashot and threatened to commit suicide if she was not allowed to marry him. Samuel conceded and appointed Ashot as governor of the Drach Province.[95] Samuel also gained an alliance with the Kingdom of Hungary when his eldest son and heir, Gavril Radomir, married the daughter of the Hungarian Ruling Prince Géza.[96]

Advance of the Byzantines

The beginning of the new millennium saw a change in Byzantine-Bulgarian relations.[97] Basil II had amassed an army larger and stronger than that of the Bulgarians. Determined to definitively conquer Bulgaria, he moved much of the battle-seasoned war potential from the eastern campaigns against the Arabs to the Balkans[98][99] and Samuel was forced to defend rather than attack.[100]

"Even if the sun would have come down, I would have never thought that the Moesian [Bulgarian] arrows were stronger than the Avzonian [Roman, Byzantine] spears.

... And when you, Featon [Sun], descend to the earth with your gold-shining chariot, tell the great soul of the Caesar: The Danube [Bulgaria] took the crown of Rome. The arrows of the Moesians broke the spears of the Avzonians."

Byzantine writer John Kyriotes Geometres on the battle of the Gates of Trajan.[101]

In 1001, Basil II sent a large army under the patrician Theodorokanos and Nicephorus Xiphias to the north of the Balkan Mountains to seize the main Bulgarian fortress in the area. The Byzantine troops seized Preslav and Pliska,[102] putting north-eastern Bulgaria under Byzantine rule for a second time. The following year, they struck in the opposite direction, marching through Thessaloniki to tear off Thessaly and the southernmost parts of the Bulgarian Empire. Although the Bulgarian commander of the fortress of Veroia, Dobromir, was married to one of Samuel's nieces, he voluntarily surrendered the fort and joined the Byzantines.[103] The Byzantines also captured the fortress of Kolidron without a fight, but its commander Dimitar Tihon managed to retreat with his soldiers and join Samuel.[104] The next town, Servia, did not fall so easily. Its governor Nikulitsa organized the defenders well. They fought bravely until the Byzantines penetrated the walls and forced them to surrender.[105] Nikulitsa was taken to Constantinople and given the high court title of patricius, but he soon escaped and joined the Bulgarians. He tried to retake Servia, but the siege was unsuccessful and he was captured again and imprisoned.[106]

Meanwhile, Basil II's campaign seized many towns in Thessaly. He forced the Bulgarian population of the conquered areas to resettle in the Voleron area between the Mesta and Maritsa rivers. Edessa resisted for weeks but after a long siege was conquered. The population was moved to Voleron and its governor Dragshan was taken to Thessaloniki, where he was betrothed to the daughter of a local noble. Unwilling to be married to an enemy, Dragshan three times tried to flee to Bulgaria and was eventually executed.[107]

War with Hungary

Main article: Bulgarian-Hungarian Wars

Map of Bulgaria in its largest extension during Samuel's reign.[32]The Byzantine-Bulgarian conflict reached its height in 1003 when Hungary became involved. Since the beginning of the 9th century, the Bulgarian territory had stretched beyond the Carpathian Mountains as far as the Tisza River and the middle Danube. During the reign of Samuel, the governor of these northwestern parts was Duke Ahtum, the grandson of Duke Glad, who was defeated by the Hungarians in 930s. Ahtum commanded a strong army and firmly defended the northwestern borders of the Empire. He also built many churches and monasteries through which he spread Christianity in Transylvania.[108][109]

Although Gavril Radomir's marriage to the daughter of the Hungarian ruler had established friendly relation between the two strongest states in the Danube area, the relationship deteriorated after Géza's death. The Bulgarians supported Gyula and Koppány as rulers instead of Géza's Stephen I. As a result of the conflict, the marriage between Gavril Radomir and the Hungarian princess was dissolved. The Hungarians then attacked Ahtum, who had directly backed the pretenders for the Hungarian crown. Stephen I convinced Hanadin, Ahtum's right-hand man, to help in the attack. When the conspiracy was uncovered Hanadin fled and joined the Hungarian forces.[110] At the same time, a strong Byzantine army besieged Vidin, Ahtum's seat. Although many soldiers were required to participate in the defense of the town, Ahtum was occupied with the war to the north. After several months he died in battle when his troops were defeated by the Hungarians.[111] As a result of the war, Bulgarian influence to the northwest of the Danube diminished.

Further Byzantine successes

The first decade of the new millennium was abundant in constant bloody battles, sieges and skirmishes. This picture shows a Byzantine victory in that period.The Byzantines took advantage of Bulgarian difficulties in the north. In 1003, Basil II led a large army to Vidin, northwestern Bulgaria's most important town. After an eight-month siege, the invaders captured the fortress by force.[112] The commanders of the town repulsed all attempts to break its defence, including the use of Greek fire.[37] While Basil's forces were engaged there, Samuel struck in the opposite direction: on 15 August he attacked Adrianople and plundered the area.[113] The Byzantines continued the siege of Vidin and finally gained the town after a betrayal by the local bishop.[114]

Basil II then decided to return to Constantinople, but, fearing an encounter with the Bulgarian army on the main road to his capital, he used an alternate route. The Byzantines marched south through the Morava valley and reached a key Bulgarian city, Skopje, in 1004. The Bulgarian army was camping on the opposite side of the Vardar River. After finding a ford and crossing the river Basil II attacked and defeated Samuel's unsuspecting army, repeating tactics used in the Battle of Spercheios.[115] The Byzantines continued east and besieged the fortress of Pernik. Its governor, Krakra, was not seduced by Basil's promises of a noble title and wealth. Krakra defended the fortress and the Byzantines withdrew to Thrace after suffering heavy losses.[116][117]

In the same year, Samuel undertook a march against Thessaloniki. He ambushed and captured its governor, Ioannes Chaldus,[37][118] but this success could not compensate for the losses the Bulgarians had suffered in the past four years. The setbacks in the war demoralized some of Samuil's military commanders, especially the captured Byzantine nobles. Samuel's son-in-law Ashot, the governor of Dyrrhachium, made contact with the local Byzantines and the influential Ioannes Chryselios, Samuel's father-in-law. Ashot and his wife boarded one of the enemy ships that beleaguered the town, and fled to Constantinople. Meanwhile Chryselios surrendered Dyrrhachium to the Byzantine chief Eustathios Daphnomeles in 1005, securing the title of patricius for his sons.[119][120]

From 1006 to 1013, neither side had much success and the balance of power remained unchanged. But in 1006–1007, Basil II penetrated deep into Bulgarian territory[121] and in 1009 Samuel's forces were defeated at Kreta east of Thessaloniki.[122] Basil launched annual campaigns into Bulgarian territory, devastating everything on his way.[123] Although there was still no decisive battle, it was clear that the end of the Bulgarian resistance was imminent; the evidence was the fierceness of the military engagements and the constant campaigns of both sides which devastated the Bulgarian and Byzantine lands.[124][122]

Disaster at Kleidion

Main article: Battle of Kleidion

The battle of Kleidion.Since the Byzantines usually used the valley of the Strumitsa River for their invasions into Bulgaria, Samuel built a thick wooden wall in the gorges around the village of Klyuch (Kleidion, "key") to bar the enemy's way. When Basil II launched his next campaign in the summer of 1014, his army suffered heavy casualties in assaults against the wall.

Meanwhile Samuel sent forces under his general Nestoritsa to attack Thessalonica to distract Basil's attention. Nestoritsa was defeated near the city[125] by its governor Botaniates who later joined the main Byzantine army near Klyuch.[126] After several days of trying to break through the wall, one Byzantine commander, the governor of Plovdiv Nicephorus Xiphias, found a by-pass and on 29 July attacked the Bulgarians from the rear.[127] Despite the desperate resistance and the personal bravery of Gavril Radomir, the Byzantines overwhelmed the Bulgarian army and captured around 14,000 soldiers.[128] According to some sources the number was 15,000.[129] Basil II immediately sent forces under his favourite commander Theophylactus Botaniates to pursue the surviving Bulgarians, but they were defeated after an audacious counter-attack by Gavril Radomir, who personally killed Botaniates.

Then, under order of Basil II the captured men were blinded; one of every 100 men was left with one eye to lead the others home.[130][131] They were sent back to Samuel, who had a heart attack on seeing the blinded soldiers. He died two days later, on 15 October 1014.[132] This savagery gave the Byzantine emperor his byname Boulgaroktonos ("Bulgar-slayer" in Greek: Βουλγαροκτόνος). Some historians theorize it was the death of his favourite commander that infuriated Basil II to blind the captured soldiers.[133]

Aftermath

Themes in the Byzantine Empire under Basil IIThe battle of Kleidion had major political consequences. Although Samuel's son and successor, Gavril Radomir, was a talented military leader, he was unable to restore the Bulgarian Empire's previous power. After Samuel's death, many of his subordinates, including Krakra, surrendered to the Byzantines. In the deep north-northwest, the duke of Syrmia, Sermon, was deceived and killed by the Byzantines.[134] After many other bloody battles, The Bulgarian Empire was thoroughly conquered by the end of 1018, only four years after Samuel's death.[135] Most of the territory was incorporated in the new Theme of Bulgaria with Skopje as capital.[136] It was more than 150 years before Bulgaria was restored, with the rebellion of brothers Peter and Asen in 1185.

Family

Detail form Samuil's garment.Samuel married Agatha, whose origin is unknown. They had five children: Gavril Radomir and four daughters—Theodora Kosara, Miroslava, Katun Anastasiya and Agatha. Gavril Radomir married twice, to Ilona of Hungary and Irina from Larisa; Kosara married the Prince of Duklya, Jovan Vladimir; Miroslava married the captured Byzantine noble Ashot and Katun Anastasiya married the Hungarian noble Vazul.

After the fall of Bulgaria, Samuel's descendants assumed important positions in the Byzantine court after they were resettled and given lands in Asia Minor and Armenia. Оne of his granddaughters, Catherine, became Empress of Byzantium. Another grandchild, Peter II Delyan, tried to restore the Bulgarian Empire after a major uprising in 1040–1041. Two other women of the dynasty became Byzantine Empresses,[137] while many nobles were strategos and governors of different provinces.

             Comita

Nikola Ripsimia

of Armenia

David Moses Aron Samuil

of Bulgaria Agatha

 Katun

Anastazya Theodora

Kosara Miroslava Gavril

Radomir

There is also another version about Samuel’s origin. The 11th century historian Stepanos Asoghik wrote that Samuel had only one brother, and they were Armenians from the district Derjan (Armenian land incorporated into the Byzantine Empire). They were sent to fight the Bulgarians in Macedonia but ended up joining them.[138] This version is supported by the historian Nicholas Adontz who analyzes the events and facts of the century and concludes that Samuel had only one brother, David.[139] Asoghik's version is also supported by the historian Jordan Ivanov,[140] and according to Samuil's Inscription he had only one brother called David.

Yahya says that the son of Samuel – Gabriel (Gavril) was assassinated by the boss of the Bulgarians, son of Aaron, because Aaron belonged to the race that reigned over Bulgaria. Asoghik and Yahya clearly distinguish the race of Samuel from the one of Aaron or the race of the Comitopouli from the royal race. Moses and Aaron are not from the family of the Comitopouli. David and Samuel were of Armenian origin. Moses and Aaron were Armenians from their mother’s side.[141]Check out:

Simeon I of Bulgaria had several daughters and four sons:

1.Michael. 2.Peter I of Bulgaria (married to an Armenian Irina (Maria)/ Boris, Roman. 3.Ivan (married to an Armenian in Caesarea/ Moses, Aaron/ John (Ivan) Vladislav. 4.Benjamin (Bajan).

Comes (comita) Nikola/ David, Samuel/ Gabriel (Gavril Radomir) and several other children.

Grave

The remains of the Basilica of Agios Achillius in Lake Prespa where Samuil's grave was found.Samuel's grave was found in 1965 by Greek professor Nikolaos Moutsopoulos, on an island in Lake Prespa, in the Church of St Achillios. Samuel had built the church for the relics of the saint of the same name.[142] The coat of arms of the Comitopuli house, two perched parrots, was embroidered on his funeral garment.

His remains are kept in a secret location in Greece, but according to a recent agreement, they may be returned to Bulgaria and buried in the SS. Forty Martyrs Church in Veliko Tarnovo by April 2007, to rest with the remains of emperors Kaloyan and Michael Shishman.[143]

The skull was reconstructed to restore the appearance of the 70-year-old Bulgarian ruler. According to the reconstruction he was sharp-faced man, bald-headed with white beard and moustache.[144]

Nomenclature

Samuel's empire had its heartlands about Ohrid, west and southwest of the earlier centers of the First Bulgarian Empire. Thus the White Russian-Yugoslav scholar George Ostrogorsky distinguished Samuel's Empire sharply from the earlier Bulgarian Empire, as being a "Macedonian kingdom".[145] Some of his school, such as Anastasijević, claimed that Samuel ruled a separate Slavic Empire,[146] founded as an anti-Bulgarian rebellion of the Comitopuli, not a continuation of the Bulgarian state. This theory is now held only in the Republic of Macedonia; although Pirivatrić rejects it.[147] The official publications of the Republic even refer to a "Macedonian Slavic" or even only "Macedonian" Empire.[148]

Legacy

Samuel is among the most renowned Bulgarian rulers. His military struggle with the Byzantine empire is marked as an epic period of Bulgarian history. The great number of monuments and memorials in Bulgaria and Republic of Macedonia, such as the ones in Petrich and Ohrid signify the trail this historical figure has left in the memory of people. Four Bulgarian villages bear his name as well as Samuel Point[149] on Livingston Island, Antarctica. Samuel is the main figure in at least three major Bulgarian novels by authors Dimitar Talev[150], Anton Donchev and Stefan Tsanev and is mentioned in the verse of Ivan Vazov[151], Pencho Slaveykov[152] and Atanas Dalchev.[153]

Samuel of Bulgaria

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Samuel[1] (also Samuil representing Bulgarian: Самуил, pronounced [samu%CB%88il]%29 was the Emperor (Tsar) of the First Bulgarian Empire from 997 to 6 October 1014. From 980[2] to 997, he was a general for Roman I of Bulgaria, the second surviving son of Emperor Peter I of Bulgaria, and co-ruled with him, as Roman bestowed him command of the army and the real authority.[3] Samuel struggled to preserve his country's independence from the Byzantine Empire. His rule was characterized by constant war against the Byzantium and its similarly ambitious ruler Basil II.

In his early years Samuel managed to inflict several major defeats on the Byzantines and to launch offensive campaigns on their territory.[4] In the late 10th century, the Bulgarian armies conquered the Serb principality of Duklja[5] and led campaigns against the Kingdoms of Croatia and Hungary. But from 1001, he was forced mainly to defend the Empire against the superior Byzantine armies. Samuel died of heart attack on 6 October 1014, two months after the catastrophe at Kleidion, and Bulgaria was fully subjugated by Basil II four years later.[6]

Samuel was considered "invincible in power and unsurpassable in strength".[7][8] Similar comment was made even in Constantinople, where John Kyriotes Geometres penned a poem offering a punning comparison between the Bulgarian Emperor and a comet which appeared in 989.[9][10]

During Samuel's reign, Bulgaria gained control of most of the Balkans (except Thrace) and southern Greece. He moved the capital from Skopje to Ohrid[11][4], which had been the cultural and military centre of southwestern Bulgaria since Boris I's rule.[12] He also made the city the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. Although Samuel's reign brought the end of the First Bulgarian Empire, he is regarded as a heroic ruler in Bulgaria.[13][14]

The Cometopuli

Samuel was the fourth[15] and youngest son of Comita Nikola, most likely Count of Sredets (Sofia)[16] and the Armenian[17] princess[18] Ripsimia.[19] His father, who had close ties to the royal court in Preslav[20], died in 970. At that time there was no Emperor in Preslav as Peter I had died on 30 January 970 and his sons Boris and Roman were in Constantinople.[21]

In the same year[22] Samuel and his three brothers David, Moses and Aaron rebelled against John I Tzimisces's campaign that aimed to "liberate" Bulgaria from the Kievan Rus', which they saw as an attempt by Byzantium to seize power in Bulgaria.[23] Indeed the following year, the Byzantines deceived[24] Boris II and forced him to abdicate in Constantinople.[25] Although Tzimisces announced the annexation[26] of Bulgaria, he only controlled the northeastern half of the country, including the capital Preslav and the seat of patriarchate Drastar (Silistra).[27][28] The lands west of the Iskar River[29][30] remained under the control of the four brothers, who were called Cometopuli (Kometopouloi, i.e., "the sons of the Count") in Byzantine sources.[31] In 973, the Cometopuli sent envoys to the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I in Quedlinburg in an attempt to secure the protection of their lands.[32]

The brothers ruled together in a tetrarchy.[33] David ruled the southernmost regions and led the defense of one of the most dangerous border areas, around Thessaloniki and Thessaly.[33] The centres of his possessions were Prespa and Kastoria. Moses ruled from Strumitsa,[33] which would be a base for attacks on the Aegean coast and Serres. Aron ruled from Sredets,[33] and was to defend the main road from Adrianople to Belgrade, and to attack Thrace. Samuel ruled northwestern Bulgaria from the strong fortress of Vidin. He was also to organize the liberation of the conquered areas to the east and of Preslav.[34] Some records suggest that David played a major role in this tumultuous period of Bulgarian history.[35]

Even before the fall of Preslav, the Bulgarians defeated Byzantium's Asian army, led by the eunuch Peter, on the outskirts of Plovdiv in 970.[36] From 971 to 975, there were many skirmishes and minor battles, and the Bulgarian detachments harassed the Byzantine possessions in the Balkans.[37] After John I Tzimiskes died on 11 January 976, the Cometopuli launched an assault along the whole border. But within the first weeks David was killed by Vlach vagrants and Moses was fatally injured by a stone during the siege of Serres.[38]Moses died in 986. [39]

Their actions to the south detained many Byzantine troops and eased Samuel's liberation of northeastern Bulgaria; the Byzantine commander was defeated and retreated to Crimea.[40][41] Any Bulgarian nobles and officials who had not opposed the Byzantine conquest of the region were executed, and the war continued north of the Danube until the enemy was scattered and Bulgarian rule was restored.[42]

[edit]Death of Aaron and Samuel's ascent to power

After its serious defeats in the Balkans, the Byzantine Empire descended into civil war. The commander of the Asian army, Bardas Scleros, rebelled in Asia Minor and sent troops under his son Romanus in Thrace to besiege Constantinople. The new Emperor Basil II did not have enough manpower to fight both the Bulgarians and the rebels and resorted to treason, conspiracy and complicated diplomatic plots.[43]

Basil II was making many promises to the Bulgarians and Scleros to divert them from allying against him.[44] Aaron, the eldest living Comitopulus, was tempted by an alliance with the Byzantines and the opportunity to seize power in Bulgaria for himself. He held land in Thrace, where the Byzantines could threaten it. Basil reached an agreement with Aaron, who asked to marry the Basil's sister to seal it. But Basil instead sent the wife of one of his officials with the bishop of Sebaste. The deceit was uncovered and the bishop was killed.[45]

Nonetheless, negotiations proceeded and concluded in a peace agreement. The historian Scylitzes wrote that Aron wanted sole power and "sympathized with the Romans".[46] Samuel learned of the conspiracy and conflict between the two brothers was inevitable. The quarrel broke out in the vicinity of Dupnitsa on 14 June 976 and ended with the annihilation of Aaron's family. Only his son, Ivan Vladislav, survived because Samuil's son Gavril Radomir pleaded on his behalf.[47] Now, practically all power and authority in the state was with Samuel, and the danger of internal conflict was eliminated.

However, another theory suggests that Aron participated in the battle of the Gates of Trajan which took place ten years later. According to that theory Aron was killed on 14 June 987 or 988.[48][49]

Co-rule with Roman

After the Byzantine plan to use Aron to cause instability in Bulgaria failed, they tried to encourage the rightful heirs to the throne,[50] Boris II and Roman, to oppose Samuil. Basil II hoped that they would win the support of the nobles and isolate Samuel or perhaps even start a Bulgarian civil war.[51] Boris and Roman were send back in 986[52] but while they were passing through a forest around the border, Boris was killed by Bulgarian guards who were misled by his Byzantine clothing. Roman, who was walking some distance behind, managed to identify himself to the guards.[53]

Roman was taken to Vidin, where he was proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria.[54] Samuel became his first assistant and general and together they gathered an army and fought the Byzantines.[55] During his captivity, Roman had been castrated on the orders of John I Tzimiskes so that he would not have heirs. Thus, his first assistant, Samuel, was certain to eventually succeed Roman. The new emperor entrusted Samuel with state affairs and became occupied with the church and religion.[56]

As the main efforts of Basil II were concentrated against the rebel Skleros, Samuel's armies easily attacked all European possessions of the Byzantine Empire. He invaded not only Thrace and the area of Thessaloniki, but also Thessaly, Hellas and Peloponnese. Many Byzantine fortresses fell under Bulgarian rule.[57] Samuel wanted to seize the important fortress of Larissa, which controlled the key routes to Thessaly. From 977 to 983, the area around the town was blocked. After starvation forced the Byzantines to surrender[11], the population of the town was deported to the interior of Bulgaria and the males were forced to enlist in the Bulgarian army.[58] Although Basil II sent forces to the region, they were defeated, and the conquest of Thessaly marked the loss of the last Byzantine stronghold in that part of the peninsula. With this victory, Bulgaria had gained influence over the southwestern Balkans. From Larissa, Samuel took the relics of St Achillios, which were laid in a specially built church of the same name on an island in Lake Prespa.[59][60][61]

The major successes in the west raised justifiable fears in Constantinople, and after serious preparations, Basil II launched a campaign in the very centre of the Bulgarian Empire[62] to distract Samuel from southern Greece.[63][64] The Byzantine army passed through the mountains around Ihtiman and besieged Sofia in 986. For 20 days, the Byzantine assaults proved fruitless and even disastrous: several times, the Bulgarians came out of the city, slaughtered many enemy soldiers and captured draught animals and horses. Eventually, the Bulgarian troops burned the siege equipment of the invaders. Basil II withdrew to Thrace, but on 17 August 986,[65] while passing through the mountains, the Byzantine army was thoroughly routed at the Trajan's Gate Pass. This was a significant blow for Basil,[66][67] who was one of the few to return to Constantinople; his personal treasure was captured by the victors.[68][69]

After the defeat, the Byzantine Empire descended into a civil war after the rebellion of Bardas Phocas.[70][71][72] Samuil seized the opportunity and began to exert pressure on Thessaloniki.[73][74] Basil II sent a large army to the town and appointed a new governor, Gregorios Taronites,[75] but he was powerless to stop the Bulgarian advance. By 989, the Bulgarian troops had penetrated deep into Byzantine territory[76] and seized many fortresses, including such important cities as Veria and Servia. In the south, the Bulgarians marched throughout Epirus and in the west they seized the area of modern Durrës on the Adriatic Sea.[77][78][79]

In 989, Phocas was killed and his followers surrendered, and the following year Basil II reached an agreement with Skleros.[80] The Byzantines focused their attention on Bulgaria,[81] and in 991 counter-attacked.[82][83] The Bulgarian army was defeated and Roman was captured while Samuel managed to escape.[84] The Byzantines conquered some areas; but in 995, the Arabs invaded Asia Minor and Basil II was forced to move many of his troops to combat this new threat. Samuil quickly regained the lost lands and advanced south. In 996, he defeated the Byzantines in the battle of Thessaloniki. During the battle, Thessaloniki's governor, Gregorios, perished and his son Ashot was captured.[85] Inspired, the Bulgarians continued south. They marched through Thessaly, overcame the defensive wall at Thermopylae and entered Peloponnese, devastating everything on their way.[86]

The Byzantines recovered and an army under Nikephorus Uranos was sent after the Bulgarians. The two armies met near the flooded river of Spercheios. The Byzantines found a place to ford, and on 19 July 996, they surprised the unprepared Bulgarian army and routed it in the battle of Spercheios.[87] Samuel's arm was wounded and he barely escaped captivity; he and his son allegedly pretended to be dead.[88] After nightfall they headed for Bulgaria and walked 400 kilometres (249 mi) home. Research of Samuel's grave suggests that, the bone in his arm healed at an angle of 140° but remained crippled.[89]

[edit]Emperor

In 997, Roman died in captivity in Constantinople, ending the line of rulers started by Krum. Because of the war with Byzantium, it was dangerous to leave the throne vacant for long, and Samuel was chosen as the new Emperor of Bulgaria because he had the closest relations to the deceased emperor and was Roman's long-standing military commander.[90] The presbyter of Duklja also marked the event: "By that time among the Bulgarian people rose one Samuel, who proclaimed himself Emperor. He led a long war against the Byzantines and expelled them from the whole territory of Bulgaria, so that the Byzantines did not dare to approach it."[91]

Constantinople would not recognize the new emperor, as for the Byzantines Boris II's abdication symbolized the official end of Bulgaria and Samuel was considered a rebel. Instead Samuel sought recognition from the Pope, which would be a serious blow to Byzantine positions in the Balkans and lessen the influence of the Patriarch of Constantinople, which would benefit both Rome and Bulgaria. Samuil possibly received his imperial crown from Pope Gregory V.[92]

[edit]War against Serbs and Croats

In 998, Samuel launched a major campaign against the Serbian principality of Duklja to prevent an alliance between Prince Jovan Vladimir and the Byzantines. When the Bulgarian troops reached Duklja, the Serbian prince and his people withdrew to the mountains. Samuel left part of the army at the foot of the mountains and led the remaining soldiers to besiege the Ulcinj coastal fortress. In an effort to avoid bloodshed he asked Jovan Vladimir to surrender. After the prince refused, some Serb nobles offered their services to the Bulgarians and, when it became clear that further resistance was fruitless, the Serbs surrendered. Jovan Vladimir was exiled to Samuel's palaces in Prespa.[93]

The Bulgarian troops next went through Dalmatia, took control of Kotor, and journeyed to Dubrovnik. Although they failed to take Dubrovnik, they devastated the surrounding villages. The Bulgarian army then attacked Croatia in support of rebel princes Krešimir III and Gojslav and advanced northwest to Split, Trogir and Zadar, then northeast through Bosnia and Raška and returned to Bulgaria.[93] This Croato-Bulgarian War allowed Samuel to install friendly monarchs in Croatia.

Samuel's daughter Theodora Kosara fell in love with the captive Jovan Vladimir. The couple married after gaining Samuil's approval, and Jovan returned to his lands as a Bulgarian official along with his uncle Dragomir, whom Samuel trusted.[94] Meanwhile, Princess Miroslava fell in love with the Byzantine noble captive Ashot and threatened to commit suicide if she was not allowed to marry him. Samuel conceded and appointed Ashot as governor of the Drach Province.[95] Samuel also gained an alliance with the Kingdom of Hungary when his eldest son and heir, Gavril Radomir, married the daughter of the Hungarian Ruling Prince Géza.[96]

[edit]Advance of the Byzantines

The beginning of the new millennium saw a change in Byzantine-Bulgarian relations.[97] Basil II had amassed an army larger and stronger than that of the Bulgarians. Determined to definitively conquer Bulgaria, the he moved much of the battle-seasoned war potential from the eastern campaigns against the Arabs to the Balkans[98][99] and Samuil was forced to defend rather than attack.[100]

In 1001, Basil II sent a large army under the patrician Theodorokanos and Nicephorus Xiphias to the north of the Balkan Mountains to seize the main Bulgarian fortress in the area. The Byzantine troops seized Preslav and Pliska,[102] putting north-eastern Bulgaria under Byzantine rule for a second time. The following year, they struck in the opposite direction, marching through Thessaloniki to tear off Thessaly and the southernmost parts of the Bulgarian Empire. Although the Bulgarian commander of the fortress of Veroia, Dobromir, was married to one of Samuel's nieces, he voluntarily surrendered the fort and joined the Byzantines.[103] The Byzantines also captured the fortress of Kolidron without a fight, but its commander Dimitar Tihon managed to retreat with his soldiers and join Samuel.[104] The next town, Servia, did not fall so easily. Its governor Nikulitsa organized the defenders well. They fought bravely until the Byzantines penetrated the walls and forced them to surrender.[105] Nikulitsa was taken to Constantinople and given the high court title of patricius, but he soon escaped and joined the Bulgarians. He tried to retake Servia, but the siege was unsuccessful and he was captured again and imprisoned.[106]

Meanwhile, Basil II's campaign seized many towns in Thessaly. He forced the Bulgarian population of the conquered areas to resettle in the Voleron area between the Mesta and Maritsa rivers. Edessa resisted for weeks but after a long siege was conquered. The population was moved to Voleron and its governor Dragshan was taken to Thessaloniki, where he was betrothed to the daughter of a local noble. Unwilling to be married to an enemy, Dragshan three times tried to flee to Bulgaria and was eventually executed.[107]

War with Hungary

The Byzantine-Bulgarian conflict reached its height in 1003 when Hungary became involved. Since the beginning of the 9th century, the Bulgarian territory had stretched beyond the Carpathian Mountains as far as the Tisza River and the middle Danube. During the reign of Samuel, the governor of these northwestern parts was Duke Ahtum, the grandson of Duke Glad, who was defeated by the Hungarians in 930s. Ahtum commanded a strong army and firmly defended the northwestern borders of the Empire. He also built many churches and monasteries through which he spread Christianity in Transylvania.[108][109]

Although Gavril Radomir's marriage to the daughter of the Hungarian ruler had established friendly relation between the two strongest states in the Danube area, the relationship deteriorated after Géza's death. The Bulgarians supported Gyula and Koppány as rulers instead of Géza's Stephen I. As a result of the conflict, the marriage between Gavril Radomir and the Hungarian princess was dissolved. The Hungarians then attacked Ahtum, who had directly backed the pretenders for the Hungarian crown. Stephen I convinced Hanadin, Ahtum's right-hand man, to help in the attack. When the conspiracy was uncovered Hanadin fled and joined the Hungarian forces.[110] At the same time, a strong Byzantine army besieged Vidin, Ahtum's seat. Although many soldiers were required to participate in the defense of the town, Ahtum was occupied with the war to the north. After several months he died in battle when his troops were defeated by the Hungarians.[111] As a result of the war, Bulgarian influence to the northwest of the Danube diminished.

Further Byzantine successes

The Byzantines took advantage of Bulgarian difficulties in the north. In 1003, Basil II led a large army to Vidin, northwestern Bulgaria's most important town. After an eight-month siege, the invaders captured the fortress by force.[112] The commanders of the town repulsed all attempts to break its defence, including the use of Greek fire.[37] While Basil's forces were engaged there, Samuel struck in the opposite direction: on 15 August he attacked Adrianople and plundered the area.[113] The Byzantines continued the siege of Vidin and finally gained the town after a betrayal by the local bishop.[114]

Basil II then decided to return to Constantinople, but, fearing an encounter with the Bulgarian army on the main road to his capital, he used an alternate route. The Byzantines marched south through the Morava valley and reached a key Bulgarian city, Skopje, in 1004. The Bulgarian army was camping on the opposite side of the Vardar River. After finding a ford and crossing the river Basil II attacked and defeated Samuel's unsuspecting army, repeating tactics used in the Battle of Spercheios.[115] The Byzantines continued east and besieged the fortress of Pernik. Its governor, Krakra, was not seduced by Basil's promises for a noble title and wealth. Krakra defended the fortress and the Byzantines withdrew to Thrace after suffering heavy losses.[116][117]

In the same year, Samuel undertook a march against Thessaloniki. He ambushed and captured its governor, Ioannes Chaldus,[37][118] but this success could not compensate for the losses the Bulgarians had suffered in the past four years. The setbacks in the war demoralized some of Samuil's military commanders, especially the captured Byzantine nobles. Samuel's son-in-law Ashot, the governor of Dyrrhachium, made contact with the local Byzantines and the influential Ioannes Chryselios, Samuel's father-in-law. Ashot and his wife boarded one of the enemy ships that beleaguered the town, and fled to Constantinople. Meanwhile Chryselios surrendered Dyrrhachium to the Byzantine chief Eustathios Daphnomeles in 1005, securing the title of patricius for his sons.[119][120]

From 1006 to 1013, neither side had much success and the balance of power remained unchanged. But in 1006–1007, Basil II penetrated deep into Bulgarian territory[121] and in 1009 Samuel's forces were defeated at Kreta east of Thessaloniki.[122] Basil launched annual campaigns into Bulgarian territory, devastating everything on his way.[123] Although there was still no decisive battle, it was clear that the end of the Bulgarian resistance was imminent; the evidence was the fierceness of the military engagements and the constant campaigns of both sides which devastated the Bulgarian and Byzantine lands.[124][122]

Disaster at Kleidion

Since the Byzantines usually used the valley of the Strumitsa River for their invasions into Bulgaria, Samuel built a thick wooden wall in the gorges around the village of Klyuch (Kleidion, "key") to bar the enemy's way. When Basil II launched his next campaign in the summer of 1014, his army suffered heavy casualties in assaults against the wall.

Meanwhile Samuel sent forces under his general Nestoritsa to attack Thessalonica to distract Basil's attention. Nestoritsa was defeated near the city[125] by its governor Botaniates who later joined the main Byzantine army near Klyuch.[126] After several days of trying to break through the wall, one Byzantine commander, the governor of Plovdiv Nicephorus Xiphias, found a by-pass and on 29 July attacked the Bulgarians from the rear.[127] Despite the desperate resistance and the personal bravery of Gavril Radomir, the Byzantines overwhelmed the Bulgarian army and captured around 14,000 soldiers.[128] According to some sources the number was 15,000.[129] Basil II immediately sent forces under his favourite commander Theophylactus Botaniates to pursue the surviving Bulgarians, but they were defeated after an audacious counter-attack by Gavril Radomir, who personally killed Botaniates.

Then, under order of Basil II the captured men were blinded; one of every 100 men was left with one eye to lead the others home.[130][131] They were sent back to Samuel, who had a heart attack on seeing the blinded soldiers. He died two days later, on 15 October 1014.[132] This savagery gave the Byzantine emperor his byname Boulgaroktonos ("Bulgar-slayer" in Greek: Βουλγαροκτόνος). Some historians theorize it was the death of his favourite commander that infuriated Basil II to blind the captured soldiers.[133]

The battle of Kleidion had major political consequences. Although Samuel's son and successor, Gavril Radomir, was a talented military leader, he was unable to restore the Bulgarian Empire's previous power. After Samuel's death, many of his subordinates, including Krakra, surrendered to the Byzantines. In the deep north-northwest, the duke of Syrmia, Sermon, was deceived and killed by the Byzantines.[134] After many other bloody battles, The Bulgarian Empire was thoroughly conquered by the end of 1018, only four years after Samuel's death.[135] Most of the territory was incorporated in the new Theme of Bulgaria with Skopje as capital.[136] It was more than a 150 years before Bulgaria was restored, with the rebellion of brothers Peter and Asen in 1185.

Family

Samuel married Agatha, whose origin is unknown. They had five children: Gavril Radomir and four daughters—Theodora Kosara, Miroslava, Katun Anastasiya and Agatha. Gavril Radomir married twice, to Ilona of Hungary and Irina from Larisa; Kosara married the Prince of Duklya, Jovan Vladimir; Miroslava married the captured Byzantine noble Ashot and Katun Anastasiya married the Hungarian noble Vazul.

After the fall of Bulgaria, Samuel's descendants assumed important positions in the Byzantine court after they were resettled and given lands in Asia Minor and Armenia. Оne of his granddaughters, Catherine, became Empress of Byzantium. Another grandchild, Peter II Delyan, tried to restore the Bulgarian Empire after a major uprising in 1040–1041. Two other women of the dynasty became Byzantine Empresses,[137] while many nobles were strategos and governors of different provinces.

There is also another version about Samuel’s origin. The 11th century historian Stepanos Asoghik wrote that Samuel had only one brother, and they were Armenians from the district Derjan (Armenian land incorporated into the Byzantine Empire). They were sent to fight the Bulgarians in Macedonia but ended up joining them.[138] This version is supported by the historian Nicholas Adontz who analyzes the events and facts of the century and concludes that Samuel had only one brother, David.[139] Asoghik's version is also supported by the historian Jordan Ivanov,[140] and according to Samuil's Inscription he had only one brother called David.

Yahya says that the son of Samuel – Gabriel (Gavril) was assassinated by the boss of the Bulgarians, son of Aaron, because Aaron belonged to the race that reigned over Bulgaria. Asoghik and Yahya clearly distinguish the race of Samuel from the one of Aaron or the race of the Comitopouli from the royal race. Moses and Aaron are not from the family of the Comitopouli. David and Samuel were of Armenian origin. Moses and Aaron were Armenians from their mother’s side.[141]Check out:

Simeon I of Bulgaria had several daughters and four sons:

1.Michael. 2.Peter I of Bulgaria (married to an Armenian Irina (Maria)/ Boris, Roman. 3.Ivan (married to an Armenian in Caesarea/ Moses, Aaron/ John (Ivan) Vladislav. 4.Benjamin (Bajan).

Comes (comita) Nikola/ David, Samuel/ Gabriel (Gavril Radomir) and several other children.

Grave

Samuel's grave was found in 1965 by Greek professor Nikolaos Moutsopoulos, on an island in Lake Prespa, in the Church of St Achillios. Samuel had built the church for the relics of the saint of the same name.[142] The coat of arms of the Comitopuli house, two perched parrots, was embroidered on his funeral garment.

His remains are kept in a secret location in Greece, but according to a recent agreement, they may be returned to Bulgaria and buried in the SS. Forty Martyrs Church in Veliko Tarnovo by April 2007, to rest with the remains of emperors Kaloyan and Michael Shishman.[143]

The skull was reconstructed to restore the appearance of the 70-year-old Bulgarian ruler. According to the reconstruction he was sharp-faced man, bald-headed with white beard and moustache.[144]

[edit]Nomenclature

Samuel's empire had its heartlands about Ochrid, west and southwest of the earlier centers of the First Bulgarian Empire. Thus the White Russian-Yugoslav scholar George Ostrogorsky distinguished Samuel's Empire sharply from the earlier Bulgarian Empire, as being a "Macedonian kingdom".[145] Some of his school, such as Anastasijević, claimed that Samuel ruled a separate Slavic Empire,[146] founded as an anti-Bulgarian rebellion of the Comitopuli, not a continuation of the Bulgarian state. This theory is now held only in the Republic of Macedonia; although Pirivatrić rejects it.[147] The official publications of the Republic even refer to a "Macedonian Slavic" or even only "Macedonian" Empire.[148] But Samuel called himself Bulgarian Emperor, and claimed the prestige of the Bulgarian patriarchate.

Legacy

Samuel is among the most renowned Bulgarian rulers. His military struggle with the Byzantine empire is marked as an epic period of Bulgarian history. The great number of monuments and memorials in Bulgaria and Republic of Macedonia, such as the ones in Petrich and Ohrid signify the trail this historical figure has left in the memory of people. Four Bulgarian villages bear his name as well as Samuel Point[149] on Livingston Island, Antarctica. Samuel is the main figure in at least three major Bulgarian novels by authors Dimitar Talev[150], Anton Donchev and Stefan Tsanev and is mentioned in the verse of Ivan Vazov[151], Pencho Slaveykov[152] and Atanas Dalchev.[153]

References

Andreev, Jordan; Milcho Lalkov (1996). The Bulgarian Khans and Tsars (in Bulgarian). Abagar. ISBN 954-427-216-X.

Cheynet, J.-Cl. (1990). Pouvoir et contestations a Byzance (963-1210)e (in French).

Delev, Petar; Valeri Katsunov, Plamen Mitev, Evgeniya Kalyanova, Iskra Baeva, Boyan Dobrev (2006). "12. The decline of the First Bulgarian Empire", History and civilization for 11. grade (in Bulgarian). Trud, Sirma. ISBN 9549926729.

Dimitrov, Bozhidar (1994). "Bulgarian epic endeavours for independence 968–1018", Bulgaria: illustrated history. Sofia: Borina. ISBN 9545000449.

Fine, John V. A., Jr.. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991 Chapter 6:"Bulgaria after Symeon, 927–1018". pp. 188–200. ISBN 978-0472081493.

Lalkov, Milcho (1997). "Tsar Samuil (997–1014)", Rulers of Bulgaria. Kibea. ISBN 954-474-098-8.

Lang, David Marshal, The Bulgarians : from pagan times to the Ottoman conquest. Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press, 1976. ISBN 0891585303

Ostrogorsky, George, History of the Byzantine State. tr. (from the German) by Joan Hussey, rev. ed., Rutgers Univ. Press, 1969.

Pavlov P., Samuil and the Bulgarian epopee (in Bulgarian), Sofia - Veliko Tarnovo, 2002

Pirivatrić, Srćan; Bojidar Ferјančić (1997). Samuil's state: appearance and character (in Serbian). Belgrade: Institute of Byzantology SANU. OCLC 41476117. Excerpt from the Bulgarian translation.

Runciman, Steven (1930). "The end of an empire", A history of the First Bulgarian Empire. London: George Bell & Sons. OCLC 832687.

Schlumberger, G. (1900). "t. 2 Basile II-eme - le Tueur des Bulgares", L'epopee byzantine a la fin du X-me siecle (in French).

Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, 1997, pb. ISBN 0804726302

Tsanev, Stefan (2006). "Chapter XIII. (972–1014). Heroic agony. Tsar Roman, Tsar Samuil.", Bulgarian Chronicles (in Bulgarian). Sofia, Plovdiv: Тrud, Zhanet 45. ISBN 954-528-610-5.

Zlatarski, Vasil [1927] (1971). "Part II. Frpm the Slavinization of the country to the fall of the First Empire (852—1018). VI. Struggle for independence", History of the Bulgarian state in the Middle Ages. Volume I. History of the First Bulgarian Empire., 2 (in Bulgarian), Sofia: Nauka i izkustvo. OCLC 67080314.

(2005) "1.3. The Bulgarian capitals in the Macedonian lands. The southwestern Bulgarian lands.", The Bulgarians and Bulgaria (in Bulgarian). Ministry of Internal Affairs, Тrud, Sirma.

[edit]Footnotes

Bulgarian ъ can be transliterated a, u, or sometimes â, as in български, balgarski (as below) or bulgarski.

^ Spelled thus in Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans; also Ostrogorsky, Treadgold, opp. cit., Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. In French, compare Nicholas Adontz. Samuel l'Armenien, Roi des Bulgares. Bruxelles, Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, Pp. 347-407.

^ ”They (Cometopuli) do their first apparition under the government of Kekaumènos, the strategist of Larissa … (980-983)” . Adontz, Nikoghayos. Samuel l'Armenien, Roi des Bulgares. In: Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, Pp. 347-407(358),

^ One theory is that from 972/976 to 997 Samuel ruled with Roman I of Bulgaria, who was the official Tsar until 997 when he died in Byzantine captivity. Roman is mentioned as Tsar in several historical sources; for example Annals by Yahya of Antioch calls Roman "Tsar" and Samuel "Roman's loyal military chief". Although, other historians dispute this theory, as Roman was castrated and so technically could not have claimed the crown. There was also a governor of Skopje called Roman who surrendered the city to the Byzantines in 1004, received the title of patrician from Basil II and became a Byzantine strategos in Abydus (Skylitzes-Cedr. II, 455, 13). However this could be a mere coincidence of names.

^ a b Samuil of Bulgaria

^ Britannica Online - Samuel of Bulgaria

^ Whittow, Making of Orthodox Byzantium, pp.387-388

^ Stephenson, P., The legend of Basil the Bulgar-slayer, p. 16, ISBN 0521815304

^ Sullivan. D. F., ed. and tr., The life of St Nikon, Brookline 1987, pp. 140-142

^ a b Argoe, K. John Kyriotes Geometres, a tenth century Byzantine writer, Madison 1938, pp. 140-141.

^ Schlumberger, G, L'épopée byzantine á la fin de dixiéme siécle, 1. Jean Tzimisés; les jeunes années de Basile II, le tueur de Bulgares (969-989), Paris 1896, pp. 643-644

^ a b The Encyclopedia of World History. 2001. First Bulgarian Empire - Samuil

^ About Ohrid

^ Andreev, J. The Bulgarian Khans and Tsars (Balgarskite hanove i tsare, Българските ханове и царе), Veliko Tarnovo, 1996, p. 127 ISBN 954-427-216-X

^ Stephen Runciman A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 217-218

^ Prokić, Božidar (1906). Die Zusätze in der Handschrift des Johannes Scylitzes. Codex Vindobonensis hist. graec. LXXIV. (in German), p. 28. OCLC 11193528.

^ Adontz, N (1938). "Samuel l'Armenien, roi des Bulgares". MAR Bclsmp (39):p. 37

^ Chapter 1. TSARS OF THE FIRST BULGARIAN EMPIRE: C. TSARS of the BULGARIANS 997-1018 and 1040-1041, KOMETOPULOI Ripsimia was a daughter of Ashot II Bagratuni, King of Armenia (914 - 928) and his wife Marie of Kachum. However, a number of historians including Zlatarski, Ostrogorski and Andreev do not mention anything about Ripsimia's origin.

^ Adontz, N (1938). "Samuel l'Armenien, roi des Bulgares" (in French). MAR Bclsmp (39): p. 37.

^ Blagoeva, B. For the origins of Emperor Samuil (Za proizhoda na tsar Samuil, За произхода на цар Самуил), Исторически преглед, № 2, 1966, стр. 91-94

^ According to Zlatarski (History of the Bulgarian state, I, 2, pp. 544, 562) the sons of Peter I were sent in the Byzantine capital in 963 as one of the term to resettle the peace treaty of 927. According to other historians such as Andreev (Who is who in Medieval Bulgaria, p. 41) the heir to the Bulgarian throne became hostages per Bulgarian-Byzantine agreement against Kievan Rus' in 968.

^ ”They (Cometopuli) do their first apparition under the government of Kekaumènos, the strategist of Larissa … (980-983)”. Adontz, Nikoghayos. Samuel l'Armenien, Roi des Bulgares. In: Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, Pp. 347-407(358),

^ Ioannes Scylitzes. Historia. 2, pp. 346–347.

^ Zlatarski, p.595

^ Andreev, J., Lazarov, Iv., Pavlov, Pl., Who is who in medieval Bulgaria (Koi koi e v srednovekovna Balgariya, Кой кой е в Средновековна България), "Prosveta", Sofia 1995, ISBN 954-01-0476-9, с. 41

^ Zlatarski, pp.599-600

^ Zlatarski, p. 595

^ Short history of Bulgaria (Kratka istoriya na Balgariya, Кратка история на България), Nauka i izkustvo, Sofia 1983, p. 69. That theory is accepted by most Bulgarian historians; however, Treadgold, p.509 says: Tzimisces "established six themes in western Bulgaria".

^ Zlatarski, p.603

^ Ostrogorsky, G. History of the Byzantine state (Istorija Vizantije', Исторijа Византиje), p. 288

^ For the name, see Ostrogorsky (1969), p. 301. n. 1

^ a b Delev, 12. The decline of the First Bulgarian Empire ( 12. Zalezat na Parvoto Balgarsko Tsarstvo 12. Залезът на Първото българско царство).

^ a b c d Bozhilov, Gyuzelev, 1999, pp. 314-315

^ Petrov, P (1962). "Rebellion of Peter and Boyan in 976 and struggle of the Cometopuli with Byzantium (Vosstanie Petra i Boyana v 976 i borba Komitopulov s Vizantiei, Восстание Петра и Бояна в 976 г. и борьба Комитопулов с Византией)" (in Russian). Byzantinobulgarica (1): pp. 130–132..

^ Zlatarski, p. 615

^ Syuzyumov, М (1916). "Sources from Leo Deacanus and Scyzitzes (Ob istochnikah Leva Diakona i Skilitsi, Об источниках Льва Дьякона и Скилицьi)" (in Russian). ВО (2).

^ a b c Prokić, p. 30.

^ Skylitzes, pp. 334–335.

^ Adontz, Nicolas. Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, p.356.

^ Levchenko, М. V (1951). Precious sources on the Russo-Byzantine relations in the 9th century (Tsenniy istochnih po vaprosu pussko-vizantiyskih otnosheniy v X veke, Ценный источних по вопросу русско-византийских отношений в X веке (in Russian), pp. 66–68.

^ Nikolov, G., Centralism and regionalism in Bulgaria during the early Middle ages (end of VII - beginning of XI c.) (Tsentralizam i regionalizam v rannosrednovekovna Balgariya (kraya na VII - nachaloto na XI v.), Централизъм и регионализъм в ранносредновековна България (края на VІІ - началото на ХІ в.)), София 2005, p. 195

^ Westberg, F [1901] (1951). Die Fragmente des Toparcha Goticus (Anonymus Tauricus aus dem 10. Jahrhundert) (in German). Leipzig: Zentralantiquariat der Dt. Demokrat. Republik, p. 502. OCLC 74302950.

^ Petrov, p. 133.

^ Petrov, pp. 133–134

^ General history of Stephan from Taron (Vseobshaya istoriya Stepanosa Taronskogo, Всеобщая история Степаноса Таронского (in Russian), pp. 175–176.

^ Scylitzes, pp. 434–435. In this context, by "Romans" Skylitzes understands "Byzantines".

^ Petrov, P (1959). "Formation and consolidation of the Western Bulgarian state (Obrazuvane i ukrepvane na Zapadnata Balgarska darzhava, Образуване и укрепване на Западната Българска държава)" (in Bulgarian). ГСУифф 53 (2): pp. 169–170.

^ Seibt, Untersuchungen, p. 90

^ Rozen, V. R (1972). Emperor Basil the Bulgar-slayer: extractions from Yuhia of Antioch's chronicles (Imperator Vasiliy Bolgaroboytsa: izvecheniya iz letopisi Yahi Antiohijskago, Император Василий Болгаробойца: извлечения из летописи Яхи Антиохийскаго) (in Russian). London: Variorum Reprints, pp. 21. ISBN 9780902089396.

^ Boris II and Roman were sons of Peter I whose dynasty had ruled Bulgaria since the reign of Khan Krum (803-814)

^ Petrov, p. 134

^ Adontz, Nikoghayos.Samuel l'Armenien. In: Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, Pp. 347-407(353),

^ Skylitzes, pp. 434–435.

^ Prokić, p. 28.

^ Rozen, V. R (1972). Emperor Basil the Bulgar-slayer: extractions from Yuhia of Antioch's chronicles (Imperator Vasiliy Bolgaroboytsa: izvecheniya iz letopisi Yahi Antiohijskago, Император Василий Болгаробойца: извлечения из летописи Яхи Антиохийскаго) (in Russian). London: Variorum Reprints, pp. 20–21. ISBN 9780902089396.

^ Petrov, P (1958). "On the question concerning the authenticity of the Virgin charter and the data it contains (Po vaprosa za awtentichnostta na Virginskata gramota i sadarzhastite se v neya danni, По въпроса за автентичността на Виргинската грамота и съдържащите се в нея данни)" (in Bulgarian). ГСУифф 2 (54): pp. 219–225.

^ Skylitzes, pp. 435–436.

^ Cecaumenes. Strategion, pp. 65–66.

^ Skylitzes, p. 436.

^ Cecaumeni Strategion, eds. B. Wassilewsky and P. Jernstedt, St Petersburg, 1896, pp. 65-66

^ Litavrin, G. Soveti i rasskazy Kekavmena. Sochinenie vizantiiskogo polkovodtsa XI veka, Moscow, 1972, pp. 250-252

^ Ostrogorsky, G. History of the Byzantine state (Istorija Vizantije', Исторijа Византиje), pp. 391-393

^ Leo Diaconus. Historia, p. 171.

^ W.Seibt, Untersuchungen zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte der bulgarischen Kometopulen, Handes Amsorya 89 (1975), pp.65-98

^ Rozen, p. 21.

^ Stephen of Taron, pp.185-186

^ Dennis, Three Treatises, pp.242-43

^ Skylitzes, pp. 436–438.

^ Gilferding, А (1868). Letters from the history of Serbians and Bulgarians (Pisma ob istorii serbov i bolgar, Письма об истории сербов и болгар) (in Russian), p. 209. OCLC 79291155.

^ Roman Emperors - Basil II

^ Al-Rudrawari, pp.28-35

^ Ostrogorsky, G. History of the Byzantine state (Istorija Vizantije', Исторijа Византиje), pp. 397-398

^ E Codd. Manuscriptis Bibliothecae Regiae Parisiensis, J.A.Cramer (ed.), 4 Vols (Oxford, 1839-1841), Vol 4, pp.271, 282

^ Rozen, p. 27.

^ Skylitzes, p. 446.

^ John Geometres: Anecdota Graeca, E Codd. Manuscriptis Bibliothecae Regiae Parisiensis, J.A.Cramer (ed.), 4 Vols (Oxford, 1839-1841), Vol 4, pp.271-3, 282-283

^ Zlatarski, pp. 645–647.

^ Vasilyevskiy, V. G. History of the years 976-986 (K istorii 976-986 godov, К истории 976-986 годов) (in Russian), p. 83.

^ Ioannes Geometer. Carmina, col. 920A.

^ Ostrogorsky, Byzantine State, pp.303-308

^ Zlatarski, pp. 651–652.

^ Yahya, PO 23 (1932), pp.430-431

^ Stephen of Taron, p.198

^ Rozen, p. 34.

^ Skylitzes, p. 449.

^ Skylitzes, pp. 449–450.

^ Skylitzes, p. 450.

^ Stephenson, P., The legend of Basil the Bulgar-slayer, p. 17, ISBN 0521815304

^ Andreev, 1999, pp. 331-334

^ Rozen, p. 43.

^ Šišić, Ferdo (1928). Chronicle of the Dukjean priest (Letopis popa Dukljanina, Летопис попа Дукљанина) (in Serbian). Belgrade: Serbian Royal Academy, p. 330. OCLC 4434344.

^ Duichev, Iv. (1942). "Correspondence of Pope Innocent III with the Bulgarians (Prepiska na papa Inokentii III s balgarite, Преписка на папа Инокентий III с българите.)" (in Bulgarian). ГСУифф (38): pp. 22–23. There is no direct evidence for that recognition, but in his correspondence with Pope Innocent III two centuries later, the Bulgarian emperor Kaloyan pointed out that his predecessors Peter and Samuil had received imperial recognition by Rome.

^ a b Šišić, p. 331.

^ Šišić, p. 334

^ Skylitzes, p. 451.

^ Venedikov, Iv. (1973). "The first wedlock of Gavril Radomir (Parviyat brak na Gavril Radomir, Първият брак на Гаврил Радомир)", Collection in memory of Аl. Burmov (in Bulgarian), pp. 144–149. OCLC 23538214.

^ Holmes, Basil II and the government of the empire, vii, pp. 264-265

^ Antoljak, Samuel and his estate, pp. 78-80

^ R. V. Rozen, Emperor Basil the Bulgar-slayer (Imperator Vasiliy Bolgaroboytsa, Император Василий Болгаробойца), p. 34

^ Аndreev, J. The Bulgarian Khans and Tsars (Balgarskite hanove i tsare, Българските ханове и царе), Veliko Tarnovo, 1996, p. 125 ISBN 954-427-216-X

^ Ioannis Geometrae Carmina varia. Migne, Patrol. gr., t. 106, col. 934

^ Skylitzes, p. 452.

^ Ibidem. II, р. 452

^ Prokić, p. 30.

^ Zonaras, ibid., IV, p. 118–119

^ Skyl.—Cedr., ibid., II, p. 452–453.

^ Skylitzes, pp. 452–454.

^ Legenda Saneti Gerhardi episcopi, p. 489.

^ Venedikov, p. 150.

^ Legenda Saneti Gerhardi episcopi, p. 492–493.

^ Venedikov, pp. 151–152.

^ Skylitzes, p. 454.

^ Skylitzes, pp. 454–455.

^ Ivanov, Jordan [1931] (1970). Bulgarian historical monuments in Macedonia (Balgarski starini iz Makedoniya, Български старини из Македония) (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Nauka i izkustvo, p. 557. OCLC 3736478.

^ Skylitzes, p. 455.

^ Skylitzes, p. 454.

^ Zlatarski, pp. 685–687.

^ Actes d'Iviron I. Des origines au milieu du XIe siècle, Archives de l'Athos XIV, eds. J.Lefort, N.Oikonomides, D.Papachryssanthou, H.Métrévéli (Paris, 1985), doc. 8

^ Skylitzes, p. 451.

^ Ostrogorsky, G. History of the Byzantine state (Istorija Vizantije', Исторijа Византиje), pp. 404-405

^ Gilferding, p. 250.

^ Skylitzes, p. 457.

^ Daulaurier, p. 37

^ Selected sources for the Bulgarian history, Volume II: The Bulgarian states and the Bulgarians in the Middle Ages (Podbrani izvori za balgarskata istoriya, Tom II: Balgarskite darzhavi i balgarite prez srednovekovieto, Подбрани извори за българската история, Том II: Българските държави и българите през средновековието), p. 66

^ Skylitzes, p. 457.

^ Fol, Al.; V. Gyuzelev et al (1983). Short history of Bulgaria (Kratka istoriya na Balgariya, Кратка история на България) (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Nauka i izkustvo, p. 71. OCLC 8553856.

^ Conquest of Bulgaria by Byzantium (end of X-beginning of XI c.) in the Russina chronography, HV-XVI c. (Zavoevenie Bolgarii Vizantiei (konets X-nachalo XI v.) v russkom hronografe, HV-XVI vv,; ЗАВОЕВАНИЕ БОЛГАРИИ ВИЗАНТИЕЙ (КОНЕЦ Х-НАЧАЛО XI в.) В РУССКОМ ХРОНОГРАФЕ, XV-XVI вв.) L. V. Gorina (Moscow State University)- in Russian [1]

^ Duichev, Ivan (1943–1946). In the old Bulgaria literature (Iz starata balgarska knijnina, Из старата българска книжнина) 2 (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Hemus, p. 102. OCLC 80070403.

^ Cecaumenes. Strategion, 65-66

^ Skylitzes, p. 457.

^ Zlatarski, p. 699.

^ Zlatarski, pp. 742–744.

^ Pavlov, Plamen (2002). Emperor Samuil and the "Bulgarian epopee" (in Bulgarian). Sofia, Veliko Tarnovo: VMRO Rusa.

^ Themes in the Byzantine Empire under Basil II http://img53.exs.cx/img53/6537/ThemesintheByzantineEmpireunderBasil...

^ V. Zlatarski - Istorija 1 B - Priturka 15

^ Asoghik (Stepanos de Taron). L'histoire universelle, Paris, 1859. Translation in German, Leipzig, 1907.

^ Nicholas Adontz. Samuel l'Armenien, Roi des Bulgares. Bruxelles, Palais des academies, 1938. Published also in: Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, Pp. 347-407.

^ Adontz, Nicolas. Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, p.387-380.

^ "Prof. Kazimir Popkonstantinov: The offer for exchange of Samuil's remains is a provocation from Greece", "Focus" Agency, 2007-02-15. Retrieved on 2007-04-28. (Bulgarian)

^ Dobrev, Petar (2007-04-18). The remains of Tsar Samuil will after all go to Tarnovo — to the grave of Kaloyan (Bulgarian). e-vestnik.bg. Retrieved on 2007-04-28.

^ "The appearance of Tsar Samuil is resurrected in Moscow", Radio Bulgaria, 2007-03-05. Retrieved on 2007-04-28. (Bulgarian)

^ History of the Byzantine State, (Rutgers, 1969) p. 302

^ Anastasiavić, D. N. Hypothesis on Western Bulgaria (Hipoteza o Zapadnoj Bugarskoj, Хипотеза о Западноj Бугарскоj), Glasnik Skopskog nauchnog drushtva, b. III, Skopie, 1928.

^ Pirivatrić, Samuilova Drjava: obim i karakter, Самуилова држава: обим и карактер.

^ An outline of Macedonian history from ancient times to 1991. Macedonian Embassy London. Retrieved on 2007-04-28.

^ Republic of Bulgaria, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Antarctic Place-names Commission, Bulgarian Antarctic Gazetteer Samuel Point

^ Talev, Dimitar (1998). Samuil — Bulgarian Tsar (Samuil — tsar balgarski, Самуил — цар български). Аbagar. ISBN 9545842385.

^ Ivan Vazov, The Volunteers at Shipka (in Bulgarian)

^ Slaveykov, P., Tsar Samuil (in Bulgarian)

^ Atanas Dalchev, Towards the Motherland (in Bulgarian)

^ Оставена от Симеона българска държава дълго време след неговата смърт все още запазвала външните черти

^ a b Златарски, pp. 689–690.

^ Пириватрич, Самуиловата държава, с. 136

^ Иванов, Йордан (Jordan Ivanov). Произход на цар Самуиловия род (The origin of the family of the king Samuil). In: Сборник в чест на В. Н. Златарски, София, 1925.

Давид (комитопул) е велможа от югозападната част на Първото българско царство, активен през втората половина на X в. Той е най-големият от четиримата синове на комит Никола, които през 976 г. повеждат борба срещу Византия за отвоюване на източните предели на царството, завладени от византийците пет години по-рано. Предполага се, че Давид владее непосредствено област, намираща се в югоизточната част на историко-географската област Македония между реките Вардар и Бистрица или на югозапад, в Преспа. Предполага се също така, че умира още през същата 976 г. или малко по-късно. Сигурни са сведенията за това как Давид умира - той е убит от скитащи власи в местност между Преспа и Костур, наречена "Красиви дъбрави". Въпросът дали убийството му е организирано от Византия е предмет на догадки, които не намират подкрепа от основния извор за тези събития, Йоан Скилица. В памет на най-големия си брат, Давид, и на родителите си, Никола и Рипсимия, през 993 г. българският предводител Самуил поставя каменен надпис, открит при село Герман до Преспанското езеро. Самуил е български цар, управлявал България от 997 до 6 октомври 1014 г. Той е първият владетел от династията на комитопулите. Самуил управлява България съвместно с тримата си братя, след смъртта на които той става действителен владетел на българите, макар и формално за цар да е се смята плененият от ромеите Роман. След завръщането на наследникът по право на българският трон от византийски плен - Роман, Самуил започва съвместно управление със самият него. През 997г. Самуил става едноличен владетел, в едно от най-трудните времена в българската история. В продължение на десетилетия той успява да удържи атаките на византийския император Василий II и дори му нанася сериозни поражения. Непрестанните борби за надмощие с Византия продължават през цялото му царуване. Самуил умира на 6 октомври 1014, вероятно от сърдечен удар, когато вижда ослепената си армия след битката при село Ключ. След преждевременната смърт на царя, България не успява да издържи дълго на набезите на византийците. 4 години по-късно идва и краят на Първото българско царство.