Hugh Lawson White, U.S. Senator

Summary

Hugh Lawson White, Esq., son of James White and Mary Lawson, was born 30 Oct 1773 in Rowan (now Iredell) County, Province of North Carolina, and died 10 Apr 1840 at age 66 in Knoxville, Knox, Tennessee, United States, of tuberculosis. He was buried in the First Presbyterian Church Cemetery there. Hugh White was a lawyer, banker, US senator, and presidential candidate.

Politically, Hugh White was a close ally of Andrew Jackson, whom he succeeded as US Senator from Tennessee. He, too, was against a national ban, tariffs, and even of the federal government participation in infrastructure projects. He was a leader in the Senate for the Indian Removal Act (1830), which led to the infamous Trail of Tears.

Family

White's father, James White (1747–1820), was the founder of Knoxville, Tennessee. His mother was Mary Lawson, daughter of Hugh Lawson and Mary Moore.

His brothers-in-law included surveyor Charles McClung (1761–1835), who platted Knoxville in 1791, Judge John Overton (1766–1833), the co-founder of Memphis, Tennessee, and Senator John Williams (1778–1837).

On 11 December 1798, Hugh Lawson White married as his first wife to Elizabeth Moore Carrick (d. 1832), the daughter of his teacher, the Reverend Samuel Czar Carrick, and his wife Elizabeth Moore. They were the parents of 12 children, two of whom died in infancy. Between 1825 and 1831, eight of their surviving ten children died of tuberculosis. Their lone surviving son, Samuel (1825–1860), served as mayor of Knoxville in 1857.

The children of Hugh White and Elizabeth Carrick were:

https://www.werelate.org/wiki/Person:Hugh_White_%2811%29

1. Charles Andrew Carrick White 1797 - 1826. Married Nancy Aiken Park.
2. James Moon May White 1801 - 1828. Married Eliza H. Craighead.
3. Elizabeth Moon 'Betsy' White 1803 - 1828. Married John Newton Scott Esq.
4. Mary Lawson 'Polly' White 1805 - 1828. Married William Swan.
5. Lucinda Blount White 1807 - 1827. Unmarried.
6. Margaret Ann 'Peggy' White 1809 - 1891. Married Ebenezer Alexander.
7. Cynthia Williams White 1812 - 1829. Unmarried.
8. Malinda McDowell White 1815 - 1830. Unmarried.
9. Rebecckah White 1817 - 1817. Died young.
10. Hugh Lawson White 1818 - 1919. Died young.
11. Isabella Harvey White 1820 - 1872?. Married William Baxter French.
12. Samuel Davis Carrick White 1825 - 1860. Mayor of Knoxville.

Elizabeth Moore (Carrick) White, died on March 25, 1831 at Natural Bridge Tavern in Natural Bridge, Rockbridge County, Virginia about 320 miles distant from Knoxville, at the age of 48, of consumption. Her remains were brought home to Knoxville and buried in the First Presbyterian Church Cemetery.

Hugh White married second to Mrs. Ann E. Peyton, maiden name unknown, of Washington, D.C. in 1832. She died in 1847 and is buried in the First Presbyterian Church Cemetery in Knoxville.

Notes

https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/4:1:27CL-W8X

• US Congressman. He was elected as a Senator from Tennessee to the United States Senate, serving from 1825 to 1840. White County, Arkansas is named for him.
• From The French Broad-Holston Country - Pioneers and Civic Leaders pages 500/01, we learn that he served under general John Sevier in the battle of Etowah against the Indians and, in the encounter, killed the Cherokee chief Kingfisher.
• He went to Lancaster, Pennsylvania where he studied law. He then returned to Knoxville and was admitted to practice law in 1796.
• In 1801 he was named judge of the Superior Court of Tennesseee. Judge White resigned that office in 1807 and was elected to the state Senate. He was soon appointed United States district attorney.
• He was named a trustee of the Knoxville Female Academy.
• In 1812 The Bank Of Tennessee at Knoxville began to function with him as president. He continued until 1827.
• In 1813 he traveled through the wilderness to the Coosa river in Alabama to see what aid against the Creeks was needed. Followed was the battle of Tohopeka.
• In 1821 he was appointed by President Monroe one of the commissioners to determine the claims against Spain under the Florida treaty. He also served with Kentuc ky commissioners to settle the military claims in Virginia.
• Abraham Lincoln supported Hugh White for President in the election of 1836. Lincoln was running for state legislature in that election, and said in a campaign piece " “If alive on the first Monday in November, I shall vote for Hugh L. White for president.” White was defeated. Lincoln was not.

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Biography

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Lawson_White

Hugh Lawson White (October 30, 1773 – April 10, 1840) was a prominent American politician during the first third of the 19th century. After filling in several posts particularly in Tennessee's judiciary and state legislature since 1801, thereunder as a Tennessee Supreme Court justice, he was chosen to succeed former presidential candidate Andrew Jackson in the United States Senate in 1825. He became a member of the new Democratic Party, supporting Jackson's policies and his future presidential administration. However, he left the Democrats in 1836 and was a Whig candidate in that year's presidential election.[1].

An ardent strict constructionist and lifelong states' rights advocate, White was one of President Jackson's most trusted allies in Congress in the late 1820s and early 1830s. White fought against the national bank, tariffs, and the use of federal funds for internal improvements, and led efforts in the Senate to pass the Indian Removal Act of 1830. In 1833, at the height of the Nullification Crisis, White, as the Senate's president pro tempore, coordinated negotiations over the Clay compromise.

Suspicious of the growing power of the presidency, White began to distance himself from Jackson in the mid-1830s, and realigned himself with Henry Clay and the burgeoning Whig Party. He was eventually forced out of the Senate when Jackson's allies, led by James K. Polk, gained control of the Tennessee state legislature and demanded his resignation.

Early life

White was born in what is now Iredell County, North Carolina (but then part of Rowan County), the eldest son of James White and Mary Lawson White. James, a Revolutionary War veteran, moved his family to the Tennessee frontier in the 1780s, and played an active role in the failed State of Franklin. In 1786, he constructed White's Fort, which would eventually develop into Knoxville, Tennessee. Young Hugh was a sentinel at the fort, and helped manage its small gristmill.

In 1791, White's Fort was chosen as the capital of the newly-created Southwest Territory, and James White's friend, William Blount, was appointed governor of the territory. Hugh Lawson White worked as Blount's personal secretary, and was tutored by early Knoxville minister and educator, Samuel Carrick. In 1793, he fought in the territorial militia under John Sevier during the Chickamauga Wars. Historian J. G. M. Ramsey credited Hugh Lawson White's company with the killing of the Cherokee chief, King Fisher, and White's granddaughter and biographer, Nancy Scott, stated that White fired the fatal shot.

White studied law in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, under James Hopkins, and was admitted to the bar in 1796. Two years later, he married Elizabeth Carrick, the daughter of his mentor, Samuel.

The judiciary and early political career

In 1801, White was appointed judge of the Superior Court of Tennessee, then the state's highest court. In 1807, he resigned after being elected to the state legislature. He left the state legislature in 1809, following his appointment to the state's Court of Errors and Appeals (which replaced the Superior Court as the highest court). He resigned this position in 1815, when he was elected to the state senate. He served in the state senate until 1817. As a state legislator, White helped reform the state's land laws, and engineered the passage of an anti-dueling measure.

In 1812, White was named president of the Knoxville branch of the Bank of Tennessee. White was described as a very cautious banker, and his bank was one of the few in the state to survive the Panic of 1819.

In 1821, President James Monroe appointed White to a commission to settle claims against Spain, following the Adams-Onís Treaty in which that nation sold Florida to the United States.

United States Senate

In 1825, the Tennessee state legislature chose White to replace Andrew Jackson in the United States Senate (Jackson had resigned following his failed run for the presidency in 1824). White spearheaded the Southern states' opposition to sending delegates to the 1826 Congress of Panama, which was a general gathering of various nations in the Western Hemisphere, many of which had declared their independence from Spain and abolished slavery. White argued that if the U.S. attended the congress, it would violate the commitment to neutrality put forth by President Washington decades earlier, and stated that the nation should not get involved in foreign treaties merely for the sake of "gratifying national vanity."

Following Jackson's election to the presidency in 1828, White became one of the Jackson Administration's key congressional allies. White was chairman of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, which drew up the Indian Removal Act of 1830, a major initiative of Jackson. The act called for the relocation of the remaining Native American tribes in the southeastern United States to territories west of the Mississippi River, and would culminate in the so-called Trail of Tears.

In an 1836 speech, White described himself as a "strict constructionist," arguing that the federal government could not pass any laws outside its powers specifically stated in the Constitution. Like many Jacksonians, he was a staunch states' rights advocate. He opposed the national bank, and rejected federal funding for internal improvements (which he believed only the states had the power to fund). He also supported Jackson's call for the elimination of the Electoral College, and opposed federal intervention into the issue of slavery.

Like most Southern senators, White opposed the Tariff of 1828, which placed a high tax on goods imported from overseas to protect growing northern industries. White argued that while the federal government had the power to impose tariffs, it should only do so when it benefited the nation as a whole, and not merely one section (i.e., the North) at the expense of another (i.e., the agrarian South, which relied on trade with England). During the resulting Nullification Crisis in late 1832 and early 1833, as the Senate's president pro tempore (the leader of the Senate in the absence of the Vice President), White coordinated negotiations in the interim between the resignation of Vice President John C. Calhoun (December 28, 1832) and the swearing in of Vice President Martin Van Buren (March 4, 1833).

1836 presidential election

Toward the end of Jackson's first term, a rift developed between White and Jackson. In 1831, as Jackson reshuffled his cabinet in the aftermath of the Petticoat affair, White was offered the office of Secretary of War, but turned it down. During the Nullification Crisis in February 1833, White angered Jackson by appointing Delaware senator and Clay ally John M. Clayton to the select committee to consider the Clay compromise. In later speeches, White stated that the Jackson Administration had drifted away from the party's core states' rights principles, and argued that the executive was gaining too much power.

The Tennessee state legislature endorsed White for the presidency in 1835, at the end of Jackson's second term. This angered Jackson, as he had chosen Martin Van Buren as his successor. White stated that no sitting president should choose a successor, arguing that doing so was akin to having a monarchy. In 1836, White left Jackson's party entirely, and decided to run for president as a candidate for the Whig Party, which had formed largely from opposition to Jackson.

In the 1836 presidential election, the Whig Party, unable to agree on a candidate, ran four candidates against Van Buren: White, William Henry Harrison, Daniel Webster, and Willie Person Mangum. Jackson actively campaigned against White in Tennessee, and accused him of being a federalist who was opposed to states' rights. In spite of this, White won Tennessee, as well as Georgia, giving him 26 electoral votes, the third highest total behind Van Buren's 170 and Harrison's

Later career

By 1837, the relationship between White and Jackson had turned hostile. Jackson was outraged when he learned that White had accused his administration of committing outright fraud, and stated in a letter to Adam Huntsman that White had a "lax code of morals." Jackson allies such as James K. Polk, Felix Grundy, and John Catron, also turned against White, and blamed him for the dispute with Jackson. White stood by his accusations, and blasted Jackson for making "useless expenditures" of public money, and increasing the power of the presidency.

By the late 1830s, Jackson's allies had gained control of the Tennessee state legislature. After White refused their demand that he vote for the Subtreasury Bill, he was forced to resign on January 13 of that year. Following a large banquet in Washington, White returned to his native Knoxville. His entry into the city was marked by the firing of cannons and the ringing of church bells, as he paraded through the streets on horseback.

Shortly after his return, White fell ill, and died on April 10, 1840. A large funeral procession led his casket and riderless horse through the streets of Knoxville. He is interred with his family in the First Presbyterian Church Cemetery.

Personality and style

White believed strongly in the principles of strict constructionism and a limited federal government, and voted against fellow Jacksonians if he felt their initiatives ran counter to these principles. His independent nature and his stern rectitude earned him the appellation "The Cato of the United States." His congressional colleague, Henry Wise, later wrote that White's "patriotism and firmness" as the Senate's president pro tempore was key to resolving the Nullification Crisis.

White believed that being on the public payroll obligated him to attend every Senate meeting, no matter the issue. Felix Grundy recalled that White once departed Knoxville in the middle of a driving snowstorm to ensure he made it to Washington in time for the Senate's fall session. Senator John Milton Niles later wrote that White was often "the only listener to a dull speech." White prided himself on being the most punctual member of the Senate, and was usually the first Senator to arrive at the Capitol on days when the Senate was in session. Senator Ephraim H. Foster once told a story about waking up well before sunrise one morning, determined to beat White to the Capitol at least once in his career, and arriving only to find White in the committee room analyzing some papers.

Family and legacy

White's pocket watch on display at the Center for East Tennessee History

White's father, James White (1747–1820), was the founder of Knoxville, Tennessee. His brothers-in-law included surveyor Charles McClung (1761–1835), who platted Knoxville in 1791, Judge John Overton (1766–1833), the co-founder of Memphis, Tennessee, and Senator John Williams (1778–1837).[1] White and his first wife, Elizabeth Carrick, had 12 children, two of whom died in infancy.[2]: 413  Between 1825 and 1831, eight of their surviving ten children died of tuberculosis.[2]: 414–419  Their lone surviving son, Samuel (1825–1860), served as mayor of Knoxville in 1857.[13]

White's farm lay just west of Second Creek in Knoxville. In the late 19th century, this became a land development area known as "White's Addition." The area is now part of the University of Tennessee campus and the Fort Sanders neighborhood. White County, Arkansas was also named in his honor.

Biography of Hugh Lawson White
Leave a Comment / North Carolina

https://accessgenealogy.com/north-carolina/biography-of-hugh-lawson...

Hugh Lawson White was born in Iredell county in 1773, on the plantation now owned by Thomas Caldwell, Esq., about two miles west of Center Church, and five miles east of Beattie’s Ford, on the Catawba river. The old family mansion has long since disappeared, and the plow now runs smoothly over its site. His grandfather, Moses White, emigrated to America from Ireland about 1742, and married a daughter of Hugh Lawson, one of the patriarchal settlers of the country. He had six sons, James, Moses, John, William, David and Andrew; many of whose descendants now reside in Iredell county. James White, the father of Hugh, was a soldier of the Revolution. About 1786 he moved to Knox county, East Tennessee, and was one of the original founders of the present flourishing city of Knoxville. When the Creek (Indian) war broke out he entered the army, was soon made a Brigadier General, and was distinguished for his bravery, energy and talents.

Hugh L. White’s education was conducted under the care of Rev. Samuel Carrick, Judge Roane, and Dr. Patterson, of Philadelphia. After completing his studies he returned home and commenced the practice of his profession. By close attention to business he soon acquired eminence, numerous friends, and a handsome competency. At the early age of twenty-eight he was elected one of the Judges of the Superior Court. In 1807 he resigned his Judgship and retired to his farm.

There appears, says a writer on biography, always to be a congeniality between the pursuits of agriculture and all great and good minds. We do not pretend to analyze the “rationale” of this, or why it is that patriotism exists with more elevation and fervency in the retirement of a farm than in the busy mart of crowded cities. The history of man proves this fact, that the noblest instances of self-sacrificing patriotism which have adorned the drama of human life, have been presented by those who are devoted to agricultural pursuits. It is the only pursuit that man followed in his state of primal innocence, and surviving his fall, allows the mind

“To look through nature, up to nature’s God.”

But his well-known abilities were too highly appreciated by his fellow-citizens to grant him a long retirement. Soon after his resignation of the judicial robes he was elected a Senator to the State Legislature.

In 1809, when Tennessee remodeled her judiciary department, and created the Supreme Court, Judge White was unanimously chosen to preside over this important tribunal of justice. He could not with propriety refuse to accept a position so cordially tendered, and highly honorable in its character. For six years he presided over its deliberations with such fidelity and strict integrity as to win universal esteem and unfading honors for his reputation. At the same time he was elected President of the State Bank. Under his able management its character acquired stability and public confidence.

The State of Tennessee was then severely suffering from the hostile incursions and savage depredations of the Creek Indians. At the darkest period of the campaign, when General Jackson was in the midst of a wild territory, and surrounded, not only by cruel savages, but enduring famine, disaffection and complaints, Judge White left the Supreme Court Bench, and with a single companion, sought and found, after days and nights of peril, the camp of the veteran Jackson. He immediately volunteered their services, and they were gladly accepted. While Judge White was absent on this campaign he lost several terms of his court; and as the Judges were only paid for services actually rendered, the Legislature resolved that there should be no deduction in his annual salary as Judge. This continuance of salary, so gratefully offered, he declined to receive.

In 1822 he was appointed, with Governor Tazewell of Virginia, and Governor King, of Alabama, a commissioner under the convention with Spain, which position he accepted and held until its term expired in 1824.

In 1825, General Jackson having resigned his seat as a Senator in Congress, Judge White was unanimously elected to fill out his term. In 1827 he was unanimously elected for a full term; and in 1832 was chosen President of the Senate. In 1836 he was voted for as President of the United States.

He died, with the consciousness of a well spent life, at his adopted home in Tennessee, on the 10th of April, 1840, aged sixty-seven years.

Obituary

Source: Tri-Weekly Nashville Union, April 16, 1840, Page 2

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Source: Boston Post, 24 Apr 1840, Fri ·Page 2

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Grave marker #69 in the cemetery.

Source: Added by: Allison Hotchkiss on 23 Aug 2020 to FindAGrave MEMORIAL ID 8037500

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Documents attached

1. Ancestry.com sources from < AncestryTree >
   1. 1830 United States Federal Census < AncestrySharing > Total Free White Persons 7 Total Slaves 27
   2. Hugh Lawson White in the Biographical Directory of the American Congress, 1774-1949 < AncestrySharing >
   3. Hugh Lawson White in the North America, Family Histories, 1500-2000. < AncestrySharing > Craighead Family. Person # 154. Eliza Craighead married 1) James White, son of Hon. Hugh Lawson White 2) W.B.A. Ramsey.
   4. Hugh Lawson White in North America, Family Histories, 1500-2000 < AncestrySharing > Robert Craigshead, Person # 156, married Sophia Elizabeth White, a grand daughter of Hon. Hugh Lawson White.
   5. Tennessee Records: Bible Records and Marriage Bonds. Hugh Lawson White Bible Records. < AncestrySharing > Hugh Lawson White and Elizabeth Carrick were married by the Rev. Samuel G. Ramsay, Dec. 14, 1789 [sic - 11 Dec 1798 - he would have been 16 years old]. She died March 25, 1831, leaving a son.
   6. Alexandria Gazette, December 3, 1832, Page 3. via Newspapers.com (https://www.newspapers.com/article/alexandria-gazette-white-peyton/... : accessed November 18, 2023), clip page for White / Peyton.
   7. Tri-Weekly Nashville Union, April 16, 1840, Page 2. via Newspapers.com (https://www.newspapers.com/article/tri-weekly-nashville-union-hugh-... : accessed November 18, 2023), clip page for Hugh L. White.
   8. Hugh Lawson White in the Tennessee, U.S., Wills and Probate Records, 1779-2008 < AncestrySharing >
2. Find a Grave, database and images (https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/8037500/hugh-lawson-white: accessed 18 November 2023), memorial page for Hugh Lawson White (30 Oct 1773–10 Apr 1840), Find a Grave Memorial ID 8037500, citing First Presbyterian Church Cemetery, Knoxville, Knox County, Tennessee, USA; Maintained by Find a Grave.

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References

1. https://mcclungcollection.knoxlib.org/repositories/2/resources/3212 Hugh Lawson White Family Bible and Scott’s Commentary (Bibles) CollectionIdentifier: FB 0004
2. https://www.genealogy.com/forum/surnames/topics/white/22807/
3. https://www.werelate.org/wiki/Person:Hugh_White_%2811%29 cites
   1. Jeanette Tillotson Acklen (compiled). Tennessee Bible Records and Marriage Bonds, comp. by Jeannette T. Acklen. (Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc, 1980) 118.
4. Dictionary of North Carolina Biography: Vol. 6, T-Z. edited by William S. Powell. Page 175. < GoogleBooks >
5. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/8037500/hugh-lawson-white
6. Reference: Find A Grave Memorial - SmartCopy: Nov 17 2023, 21:49:05 UTC
7. Reference: WikiTree Genealogy - SmartCopy: Nov 17 2023, 21:44:27 UTC
8. https://ancestors.familysearch.org/en/27CL-W8X/hugh-lawson-white-17...
9. Reference: FamilySearch Family Tree - SmartCopy: Oct 12 2017, 0:45:59 UTC
10. Reference: WikiTree Genealogy - SmartCopy: Nov 17 2023, 21:44:27 UTC
11. https://accessgenealogy.com/north-carolina/biography-of-hugh-lawson...
12. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/8037500/hugh-lawson-white
13. https://ancestors.familysearch.org/en/27CL-W8X/hugh-lawson-white-17...
14. https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/White-22504
15. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Lawson_White cites
    1. Mary Rothrock, The French Broad-Holston Country: A History of Knox County, Tennessee (Knoxville, Tenn.: East Tennessee Historical Society, 1972), pp. 501-502.
    2. Nancy Scott, A Memoir of Hugh Lawson White (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott and Company, 1856). < GoogleBooks >
    3. William MacArthur, Lucile Deaderick (ed.), "Knoxville's History: An Interpretation," Heart of the Valley: A History of Knoxville, Tennessee (Knoxville, Tenn.: East Tennessee Historical Society, 1976), p. 13.
    4. J.G.M. Ramsey, The Annals of Tennessee to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Johnson City, Tenn.: Overmountain Press, 1999), p. 586.
    5. John Wooldridge, George Mellen, William Rule (ed.), Standard History of Knoxville, Tennessee (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1900; reprinted by Kessinger Books, 2010), p. 480.
    6. John Finger, Tennessee Frontiers: Three Regions in Transition (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2001), p. 184.
    7. "Congress slaveowners", The Washington Post, January 13, 2022, retrieved July 7, 2022
    8. Feerick, John D.; Freund, Paul A. (1965). From Failing Hands: The Story of Presidential Succession. New York City: Fordham University Press. p. 86. LCCN 65-14917. As a result of Calhoun's resignation, Hugh L. White of Tennessee, as President pro tempore, was placed first in the line of succession and Andrew Stevenson of Virginia, as Speaker, second.
    9. Election of 1836, The American Presidency Project website, University of California, Santa Barbara. Accessed September 13, 2011.
    10. Graveyard Inscriptions, U-Z Archived March 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, First Presbyterian Church, Knoxville (website). Retrieved: September 9, 2011.
    11. Jonathan Atkins, "Hugh Lawson White," Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, 2009. Retrieved: September 9, 2011.
    12. Herbert Treadwell Wade, The New International Encyclopedia, Vol. 20 (1905), p. 480.
    13. Mayors of Knoxville Archived September 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, City of Knoxville website. Retrieved: September 8, 2011.
    14. Don Akchin and Lisa Akchin, National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form for Fort Sanders Historic District, March 4, 1980.
    15. Our Rich History Archived August 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, White County, Arkansas website. Retrieved: September 9, 2011.
16. Atkins, Jonathan M. (1992). "The Presidential Candidacy of Hugh Lawson White in Tennessee, 1832-1836". The Journal of Southern History. 58 (1): 27–56. doi:10.2307/2210474. JSTOR 2210474.
17. McCormick, Richard P. (1984). "Was There a "Whig Strategy" in 1836?". Journal of the Early Republic. 4 (1): 47–70. doi:10.2307/3122854. JSTOR 3122854.
18. Murphy, James Edward (1971). "Jackson and the Tennessee Opposition". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 30 (1): 50–69. JSTOR 42623203.
19. United States Congress. "Hugh Lawson White (id: W000376)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. < link >
20. https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/4:1:27CL-W8X
21. https://www.genealogy.com/forum/surnames/topics/white/8775/
22. https://gw.geneanet.org/msjadams?n=white&oc=&p=hugh+lawson
23. Atkins, Jonathan M. (Last Updated March 1, 2018) Tennessee Encyclopedia. “Hugh Lawson White.” < link > Access Date November 18, 2023
    1. Suggested Reading: Jonathan M. Atkins, “Politicians, Parties, and Slavery: The Second Party System and the Decision for Disunion in Tennessee,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 55 (1996): 20-39 and Parties, Politics, and the Sectional Conflict in Tennessee, 1832-1861 (1997)