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Sokollu Mehmed Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: سوکلو محمد پاشا‎; Serbo-Croatian: Mehmed-paša Sokolović, Cyrillic: Мехмед-паша Соколовић, pronounced [m%C4%9Bxmet pâʃa sokǒːloʋit͡ɕ];[2] 1506 – 11 October 1579) was an Ottoman statesman. Born in Ottoman Bosnia into a Serbian Orthodox family, Mehmed was taken away at an early age as part of the Ottoman devşirme system of collection of Christian boys to be raised to serve as a janissary. These boys were forcefully converted into Islam, raised and educated, but in turn were offered great opportunities to excel and to rise within the Ottoman imperial system; Sokollu Mehmed Pasha is one of many that made the best of their careers (reaching Grand Vizier rank).

He rose through the ranks of the Ottoman imperial system, eventually holding positions as commander of the imperial guard (1543–1546), High Admiral of the Fleet (1546–1551), Governor-General of Rumelia (1551–1555), Third Vizier (1555–1561), Second Vizier (1561–1565), and as Grand Vizier (1565–1579, for a total of 14 years, three months, 17 days) under three sultans: Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II, and Murad III.[3] He was assassinated in 1579, ending his near 15-year rule as de facto ruler of the Ottoman Empire.[3]

Biography

Early years

Sokollu's birth name was probably Bajica,[4][5] and he was of ethnic Serb origin.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] He was said to be born into a modest shepherd family,[5] adherent to the Serbian Orthodox Church,[17] in or near Sokolovići (tr. Sokol) in the vicinity of modern-day Rudo.[3] "Sokollu" is a demonym, derived from his place of birth (Turkish -lu indicates from a place).[3] His father was named Dimitrije.[3] He had two brothers and a sister, who married the older brother of Hüseyin Pasha Boljanić, as well as at least one uncle.[3] However, details about his family and relations are disputed on two major counts. One is his relationship to Makarije Sokolović. Traditionally identified as his brother, today some historians consider him to have been either a nephew or distant relative.[4][3] The second is the matter of Mehmed's uncle. By some accounts, his uncle was a monk at the Mileševa monastery who had his two nephews, Bajica and Makarije (taken to be brothers according to this view), educated there.[4] Other sources suggest that his uncle converted to Islam early.[3]

In 1516, an Ottoman expedition gathering up boys as part of the devşirme system reached Sokol. According to folklore, Bajica was either simply taken from his father's home or, due to a reputation as a gifted child, specifically chosen by the commanding Yeşilce Mehmed Bey. The story further holds that his uncle unsuccessfully appealed to the authorities, even offering gold for the child's return.[4]

Janissary education

He was imposed on the name of Mehmed and, first in Edirne and then in Constantinople, received a thorough Ottoman education as a recruit, first as an apprentice Janissary (in Turkish Acemi Oğlan); then in the Enderun or palace school in Topkapı Palace.

As proclaimed in Baghdad on 13 March 1535, Mehmed was sent to be one of the seven retainers of the Imperial Treasurer Iskender Çelebi. Upon Iskender's death, Mehmed returned to Constantinople. In addition to Turkish, he spoke Serbian (Serbian), Persian, Arabic, Venetian-Italian and Latin language.[citation needed]

Early career

Mehmed in 1541 first became an Imperial Chamberlain and then the head of the Sultan's squires. In these positions he became very close to Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and learned from him.

As a soldier, Mehmed excelled at the Battle of Mohács and the first Siege of Vienna. In 1546 the Kapudan Pasha Hayreddin Barbarossa died and Mehmed was appointed his successor. In this capacity he was present at the naval expedition against Trablus (present-day Tripoli in Libya). During his five years in this position, Mehmed Pasha greatly strengthened the arsenal of the naval fleet.

Mehmed became Beylerbey (Governor-General) of Rumelia in 1551, headquartered in Sofia. While he was visiting the area of his birth, his mother recognized him by the birthmark on his face and embraced her child for the first time in more than thirty years.[citation needed]

After the death of John Zápolya, king of Hungary as an Ottoman vassal, in 1540, Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor looked to annex Zápolya's lands (the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom). The Hungarian diet had elected infant John Sigismund Zápolya, the son of Zápolya and Isabella Jagiellon, as King of Hungary, which broke the Treaty of Nagyvárad, and Ferdinand I invaded Hungary. Isabella struggled to rule Hungary as Queen dowager for her son. Frater George Martinuzzi, appointed by John as regent, opposed her (he would later be created a Cardinal as reward for his accomplishments in this conflict). Ferdinand I sent mercenary leader (condottiero) Bartolomeo Castoldo with more than 7,000 mercenaries who beat a contingent led by Péter Petrovics, killing more than 2,500 of them, near Csanád. The Sultan immediately ordered Sokollu Mehmed Pasha to move into Hungary, so he assembled an army of 90,000 soldiers and fifty-four cannons and also summoned the pashas of Smederevo, Vidin and Nicopolis. When his forces reached Slankamen in Syrmia, George Martinuzzi begged Mehmed not to attack Transylvania, arguing that it had remained in the possession of the Sultan. Mehmed rejected negotiation proposals, led Ottoman forces into Transylvania and soon captured 16 cities, including Bečej, Becskerek, Csanád and Lippa. In this campaign, Sokollu won over to his side local Serb-manned garrisons by pointing out to his common ethnicity with them.[12] Martinuzzi responded by raising a rebellion in Transylvania, mustering one soldier from every household. Mehmed had to fall back and once again laid siege to Temesvár on 14 October with the main part of his army and 50 cannons. Mehmed demanded surrender, but the city's commander, István Losonci, replied with a recommendation for Mehmed's return to Rumelia.

Mehmed besieged the city until 28 October but could not seize it. Retreating to Belgrade, he initiated peace negotiations with the Monk-Viceroy. Martinuzzi was assassinated on 17 December 1551, and peace talks ended. Sokollu Mehmed renewed his military campaign in 1552, seizing Temesvár, Hollókő, Buják, Rétság, Balassagyarmat, the whole of Banat and Szolnok. Sokollu Mehmed's forces then joined with those of Ahmet Pasha advancing towards Eger. Mehmed's army assembled on the Hill of Egid but could not take the city itself.

In 1532, Sultan Suleiman had declared war on Safavid Persia following two decades of peace after the climactic Battle of Chaldiran, when the Persian Shah Tahmasp wanted to take advantage of the Sultan's preoccupation with Hungary and started making armed incursions into Ottoman territory. Sokollu Mehmed was dispatched to spend the winter of 1553/1554 in Tokat to take charge of the final stages of the war against Persia. In June 1554, Sokollu Mehmed with the Rumeli (European) levies joined the army of the Sultan in the field near Susehri. He and the Rumeli contingent showed great successes in this campaign, called the Nakhichevan Campaign by Turkish historians.

Vizier

Third Vizier

Impressed by Sokollu Mehmed's skills, the Sultan made him the Third Vizier in 1555 and he was given a place in the Imperial Council (Divan). His position as Governor-General of Rumelia was given to a Herzegovinian Janissary agha, Pertev Pasha, an old companion of Mehmed's from when they had both served under Iskender Çelebi.

Almost immediately Sokollu Mehmed had to quell a rebellion around Salonica, led by Mustafa Bey, who pretended to be the Sultan's late son Mustafa. Sokollu Mehmed took 4,000 horsemen and 3,000 janissaries and quelled the rebellion. Mustafa Bey was hanged.

Mehmed's brother, Topuzli-Makarije, became a monk of the Serb Chilandar Monastery on Mount Athos. Makarije Sokolović paid a visit to his brother's palace in Constantinople in 1557, where the two brothers discussed the possibility of re-establishing the autocephaly of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Later that same year, Sokollu Mehmed issued an edict (firman) declaring the restoration of the Peć Patriarchate, with Makarije Sokolović as Patriarch Makarije I. The edict also guaranteed the rights and religious freedom of all inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire.

When the former Grand Vizier Ahmet Pasha was deposed and hanged, he was replaced by Rüstem Pasha, who had numerous enemies. One of them was Lala Mustafa, who instigated the Sultan's third son, Bayezid, then Beylerbey of Karaman, to raise a rebellion against his brother and heir-apparent Selim. Sokollu Mehmed mustered an army and went to Konya, where he decisively defeated Bayezid's forces in May 1559. Bayezid fled to Persia. Sokollu Mehmed remained in Asia and spent the winter negotiating with the Persian Shah regarding Bayezid's extradition. After long negotiations, the Shah handed over Bayezid and his four sons, who were subsequently executed.

Second Vizier

Grand Vizier Rüstem Pasha died in 1561 and was succeeded by the Second Vizier, Semiz Ali Pasha. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha in turn became Second Vizier, while Pertev Pasha became Third Vizier.

On 17 August 1562, Sokollu Mehmed married Sultan Suleiman's granddaughter – Prince Selim's daughter – Ismihan Sultan (some sources read her name as Esma Han Sultan) . Mehmed spent the following years in peace, governing and administrating the realm.

In 1564, Mehmed's nephew, Sokollu Mustafa Bey, became Viceroy of the Eyalet of Bosnia.

Grand Vizier

In June 1565, Grand Vizier Semiz Ali Pasha died. Sultan Suleiman had much confidence in Sokollu Mehmed Pasha and promoted him to this position.

War with the Hapsburgs

In late 1565 and early 1566, tensions between the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II and Sultan Suleiman grew. Maximilian wanted the cities previously taken by the Bosniak commander Hasan Predojević restored to him. When negotiations failed, Maximilian declared war and Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha ordered his nephew, Sokollu Mustafa Bey of Bosnia, to advance against Maximilian. Mustafa managed to capture the cities of Krupa and Dvor na Uni. The Sultan immediately declared war against the Holy Roman Empire, and Sokollu Mehmed began the preparations for the army's advance. The Grand Vizier went ahead, preparing for the arrival of the Sultan, who was leading the main part of the Ottoman forces. After 50 days, they arrived in Belgrade.

Passing through Zemun, one part of the army crossed Varaždin and struck Egar before proceeding towards Vienna. The Croatian nobleman and general in service of Habsburg Monarchy Nikola Šubić Zrinski (Miklós Zrínyi), a member of the Zrinski noble family, had defeated the sanjakbey Tirhal Mohammed, executing him and his son, and capturing 17,000 ducats. This incurred the Sultan's wrath, and he dispatched Sokollu Mehmed's forces to besiege Szigetvár, while Suleiman remained in Harsang. The commander of Budin, Arslan Pasha, lost the cities of Várpalota, Veszprém and Tata. The Sultan sent a platoon of fifteen troopers to bring him Arslan Pasha's head, but Arslan had already left his forces three days earlier and was on his way to the Sultan. The Sultan showed Sokollu Mehmed a letter in which Arslan had insulted him, and on 3 August, when Arslan reported to Mehmed's tent with 15 heavily armed horsemen, Sokollu Mehmed criticized Arslan for his conduct, accused him of treason and stripped him of his post, giving it instead to his nephew Sokollu Mustafa Bey[citation needed].

The Sultan arrived with Sokollu Mehmed's sons, Kurt Bey and Hasan Bey, at Pécs. Finally, the large Ottoman force, which numbered between 100,000[18] and 300,000 soldiers and 300 cannons, laid siege to Szigetvár. The Battle of Szigetvár was an Ottoman victory, with heavy losses on both sides. Both commanders died during the battle: while Zrinsky was killed in the final charge, Suleiman the Magnificent died in his tent from natural causes, before the Turks achieved victory.[19] According to Robert William Fraser, more than 10,000 large cannonballs where shot into the fortress during the siege.

Sokollu Mehmed Pasha had all witnesses to the Sultan's death executed, and announced that Suleiman was too sick to perform his duties and that he would be healing in Szigetvár, while he would be acting on the Sultan's behalf[citation needed]. Sokollu Mehmed rewarded those involved in the capture of Szigetvár and increased the soldiers' wages. He sent a part of the army to capture Babócsa. The Tartars, however, spread the news of the Sultan's death, and Sokollu Mustafa Bey wrote to Prince Selim about his father's death. Selim marched immediately towards Srem. Upon his arrival in Vukovar, Sokollu Mehmed wrote him that it would be best if he went to Belgrade to greet his army for a more formal and effective take-over of the Empire. Selim returned to Belgrade, and Mehmed ordered the army to march towards the town. Forty days after the Sultan's death, in October 1566, the army set out for Belgrade. At the fourth stop on the way to Belgrade, forty-eight days after Suleiman's death, Sokollu Mehmed announced the Sultan's death ceremonially, during the traditional reading of the Koran. Sokollu Mehmed had Suleiman's body embalmed and ordered the army to proceed to meet the new Sultan in Belgrade. After three marches, the army arrived in Sremska Mitrovica. Mehmed reminded Selim to send gifts to the viziers, pashas and the army, but Selim's advisors convinced the new Sultan not to do so. Sokollu Mehmed went to Belgrade and swore allegiance to Selim II as his Sultan, and Selim confirmed him as his Grand Vizier.

Expecting a mutiny among the military in the capital, Sokollu Mehmed had Suleiman's body sent to Constantinople to restore order amongst the janissaries and other officials, who now demanded more compensation for their past efforts. In Belgrade, Sultan Selim II called a council, as even some of his closest officials were openly mocking him[citation needed]. Sokollu Mehmed assured him that he would manage everything effectively, and distributed gifts to the troops, rewarding them handsomely to regain their loyalty[citation needed].

On the fifth day of their stay in Belgrade, the Sultan, Sokollu Mehmed and the army departed for Constantinople. Before they managed to return to the Empire's capital, a mutiny broke out and the road to the city was blocked, and Sokollu Mehmed and Ahmed Pasha had to bribe their way into the city. Order was restored after Sokollu Mehmed convinced the Sultan to promise to send handsome gifts and higher wages to the janissaries. The next morning, each janissary was given standard pay of 40 ducats and an additional 20 ducats as an accession bonus. Soon, the other branches of the military, the spahis and mercenaries, demanded higher wages as well. Mehmed arrested and replaced their aghas at once, finally stopping all dissent[citation needed].

Two years after Selim's accession, on 17 February 1568, Sokollu Mehmed succeeded in concluding at Edirne a peace treaty with Emperor Maximilian II, whereby the Emperor agreed to pay an annual "honary present" of 30,000 ducats.

Wars with Russia, Venice and the Holy League

Mehmed Pasha had little success against Russia, and the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and her future northern rival presaged the disaster to come[clarification needed]. A plan had been devised at Constantinople for connecting the Volga and Don by a canal, and in the summer of 1569 a large force of janissaries and cavalry was sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov. However, a sortie of the garrison of Astrakhan drove back the besiegers. A Russian army of 15,000 men attacked and scattered the workmen and the Tatar force sent for their protection, and the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by a storm .[citation needed] Early in 1570 the ambassadors of Ivan the Terrible concluded at Constantinople a treaty which restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the Tsar.

Selim II was a very weak ruler, and as Grand Vizier, Sokollu Mehmed held the real power in the administration, thanks to the reforms of Selim's predecessor, Suleiman the Magnificent. Although the government was weakening, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa managed to expand the borders of the Ottoman Empire greatly. In 1570 he dispatched Sinan Pasha to conquer Arabia. Sinan Pasha solemnly declared the reign of Sultan Selim II in Mecca upon finishing his military campaign in Hejaz and Yemen.

In 1571-1572, on the order Mehmed's wife Ismihan Sultan (or Esma Han Sultan), the famous architect Mimar Sinan built the Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Mosque, which an authoritative guide to Constantinople states to be "The most beautiful of the smaller mosques in Istanbul, a minor masterpiece by Sinan".[20][21]

During the rule of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha as Grand Vizier, the Ottoman navy and army took Cyprus in 1571 from Venice. The administration of Cyprus was given to Mehmed's old friend, the Arab Ahmed Pasha. The invasion of Cyprus led to the formation of a so-called Holy League, comprising the Pope, Spain with Naples and Sicily, the Republic of Venice, Genoa, Tuscany, and the Knights of Malta. On 7 October 1571, the coalition's fleet under the command of Don Juan of Austria decisively defeated the Ottoman fleet under Müezzinzade Ali Pasha in the Battle of Lepanto.

Sokollu Mehmed Pasha immediately ensured that Piyale Pasha and Uluç Ali Reis, the new Grand Admiral, were provided with all the necessary means and resources to rebuild the Empire's shattered fleet. By July 1572 the Ottoman fleet already numbered 250 fully equipped warships "including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean".[22] It is reported in Turkish chronicles that Sokollu Mehmed Pasha had said to the Venetian Ambassador "By conquering Cyprus we have cut off one of your arms; at Lepanto by defeating our navy you have only shaved off our beard. However, you know that a cut-off arm cannot be replaced but shaved-off beard grows thicker." Indeed, the Holy League ships had to retire to ports and Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean was restored. The new Ottoman Navy that started a naval expedition in summer of 1573 under Uluç Ali Reis found no rivals in the Mediterranean and ravaged the coasts of Sicily and southern Italy and in 1574 it captured Tunis from the Hafsids, who for some time had been supported by Spanish troops, thus restoring Ottoman domination of Western Mediterranean.

On 3 March 1573, Venetian Republic signed a new peace treaty with the Ottomans under Mehmed Pasha, thereby bringing the Holy League to an end, accepting the loss of Cyprus and increasing the tribute payments. He also extended for eight more years the peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire and maintained good relations with France, Poland-Lithuania and Russia. He was preparing for a fresh attack on Venice when the Sultan's death on 12 December 1574 cut short his plans.

Final years

Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's wealth reached its peak around 1573, when the value of his personal property (cash, goods, accounts, objects) amounted to 18 million ducats. Mehmed received the standard Grand Vizier's wage of 20 ducats every day. His wealth increased greatly through gifts and taxes of Ottoman officials: anyone who became a vizier had to pay Mehmed Pasha 50,000-60,000 ducats, and every Governor-General had to pay 15,000-20,000 or even sometimes 30,000-40,000 ducats upon ascending to the office. The provincial governor of Egypt at Cairo alone dispatched 100,000 ducats to the Grand Vizier every year.[citation needed]

On 30 August 1574, Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha installed his nephew Antonije Sokolović, then the Metropolitan of Hum, as the new Eastern Orthodox Archbishop of Ohrid. On 23 October the same year, upon the death of Patriarch Makarije's death, Antonije became the new Serbian Orthodox Patriarch of Peć. Antonije died soon, in 1575, and was replaced by yet another one of Mehmed's nephews, Gerasim Sokolović.

When Sultan Selim II died, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha again kept this secret until Selim's oldest son Murad arrived from his governor's post in Manisa. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha acknowledged the new Sultan, Murad III, and remained Grand Vizier, but now he had to cope with the rising political influence of the palace women, first with Sultan's mother Nurbanu Sultan and then his wife, of Venetian origin, Safiye Sultan. Murad III gradually soured on Sokollu Mehmed's overwhelming power within the Empire, and the Grand Vizier's influence declined.

Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was involved in the succession disputes of the Polish Crown in 1576 and 1577, but this did not reach greater measures.[citation needed]

Sokollu Mehmed signed numerous treaties of friendship with Venice, Florence, Spain, England and Switzerland. He also managed to force a number of European states to pay tribute: Austria paid 9,000 ducats; Transylvania 3,000; Wallachia 7,000; Moldavia 3,000. Eventually, even Venice had to pay him 4,000 ducats annually. This altogether gave him an annual income of 31,000 gold ducats.[citation needed]

Mehmed was initially known to be opposed to the war with Persia, which began in 1578, but was overruled upon eventually, amongst one of the reasons being the constant urgings by Sokollu Mehmed to take advantage of the Ottomans neighboring rival.[1] Sultan Murad III time afterwards, began to limit his Grand Vizier's powers by slowly removing his allies from high offices. The state secretary Feridun, an old companion of Sokollu mehmed's since the siege of Szigetvár, was sent to Belgrade, away from Constantinople. Mehmed's faithful Arab friend, the Governor-General of Cyprus, was lynched by mutinous soldiers. Mehmed's greatest rivals, Hamid Efendi and Piyale Pasha, arranged the execution of the Grand Vizier's Greek protege, Michael Kantakouzenos. On 10 October 1578, Sokollu Mustafa Bey, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's nephew and Governor-General of Budin, was assassinated. On the anniversary of this day, on 10 October 1579, Sokollu Mehmed had his servant Hasan Bey read to him about the Battle of Kosovo.

The next day, on 11 October, a mentally unstable dervish demanded to see the Grand Vizier. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha allowed the dervish to enter his quarters, whereupon the latter took out a knife and stabbed the Grand Vizier. After three hours, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha died. This ended his near 15-year rule as de facto ruler of the Ottoman Empire. There are some[who?] who claim that the assassin was a janissary in disguise in employment of Safiye Sultan, the wife of Murad III. Also, some sources[who?] claim that Sokollu Mehmed was a target of Hashshashin agent, as he was opposed to war with Persia where this order was stationed, which was not in their interest, although this is a very controversial claim as this order was destroyed by Mongols long time before.

He is buried at his complex, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Külliyesi at the back of Eyüp Mosque, in Istanbul, at the Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Türbe built by famous architect Mimar Sinan for him c. 1572. His wife Ismihan (or Esma Han) is buried near him and in the little garden of the Türbe are buried the family and descendants of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha.

Heritage and legacy

Sokollu Mehmed Pasha has left numerous architecturally well known buildings in Constantinople and throughout Ottoman territories.[which?] Foundations of his buildings are spread over Edirne, Halep, Medina, Bečkerek, Belgrade and alongside[clarification needed] Bosnia, where he is especially remembered for his bridges. Mecca and Constantinople alone contained a number of his mosques.

The Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque and the complex built at Kadirga district of İstanbul by architect Mimar Sinan is considered to be the most beautiful of the smaller mosques in İstanbul.[20] It is known for its unusually fine ordering of medrese over the entry stairs, its lofty elegant interior, the first hooded fountain, ogival arches of the arcades, and especially, the fine and well preserved Iznik tiles.

His most renowned endowment is the eleven-arched Višegrad bridge in his hometown of Višegrad. The construction and history of the bridge is the topic of the novel The Bridge on the Drina (Serbo-Croatian: Na Drini ćuprija - На Дрини ћуприја), written by Nobel laureate Ivo Andrić, a Yugoslav novelist[23] His life also interested the Yugoslav writer Meša Selimović. There were numerous Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian legends about the bridge's construction. According to one, Mehmed Paşa built the bridge in his son's name. Another is the tale of its architect Rade, which is described in "Bridge on the Drina".

Other elements of his architectural legacy include:

• The Azapkapi Mosque, built by Sinan in 1577-1578 in the Azapkapi district of İstanbul, is considered most important Ottoman monument in Galata.[20]
• The Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Kulliyesi, built by Sinan in ca. 1572 in the Eyub district of İstanbul, is a complex including a medrese, a school and his tomb
• The Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Complex built in 1549 and extended at 1569, both times by Sinan. Located on the main highway between the two Ottoman capitals of İstanbul and Edirne, at Luleburgaz, it is a complex of caravanserai, bathhouse, mosque, madrasah, a school, market streets and later, private apartments for Sultan's use.
• Complexes built at Havsa, a city on the Istanbul-Edirne highway and in Payas, in southern Turkey near Antakya.
• Bridges at Alpullu, Luleburgaz and Corlu, built by Sinan
• The bridge at Arslanagića Most in Trebinje
• Vizier's bridge in Podgorica
• The bridge on Žepa and the Goat's Bridge (Kozija ćuprija) in Sarajevo
• Public bathhouses in Havsa, Yesildirek (İstanbul), Edirne and Luleburgaz public bathhouses, built by Sinan
• The Black Mosque in Sofia, built by Mimar Sinan during the years when Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was governor of Rumelia and later converted into a church in the 19th century
• A Road of four paces[clarification needed] and a castle between Višegrad and Sarajevo, on Glasinac. Of the castle, only a drinking-fountain remains, which is known as the Mehmed Sokolović's han.
• A mosque, maktab and musafirhana (guest house) in his native village of Sokolovići

See also

• Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge
• Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque
• List of Ottoman Grand Viziers

References

• 1-23

Sources

• Banac, Ivo (1984). The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press,. ISBN 978-0-8014-9493-2.
• Hastings, Adrian (1997). The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52162-544-9.
• Judah, Tim (2000). The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (2nd ed.). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08507-5.
• Judah, Tim (2008). Kosovo: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974103-8.
• Malcolm, Noel (1994). Bosnia: A Short History. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-5520-4.
• Sicker, Martin (2001). The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 027596891X.
• Tanner, Marcus (2001). Croatia: A Nation Forged in War. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09125-7.

Bibliography

• R. Samardžić, Mehmed Sokolović, t. 1-2, Łódź 1982

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha

SOKULLU MEHMED PASHA
(d. 987/1579)
Ottoman grand vizier.

Author:
ERHAN AFYONCU
His Christian name is Bayo (Bayiça) and he was born in 1505 in the Sokolovic (Şahinoğlu) village of the Rudo township of the Visegrad district of Bosnia. Zinkeisen writes from Italian sources that he was born in Trebinje, near Ragusa. His father's name is recorded as Dimitriye (Samarćić, p. 8). According to some Serbian sources, he belonged to the branch of the same family living in the village of Ravanci ( IA , VII, 595). Italian ambassadors who spoke to the pasha during his time as grand vizier stated that he said that he was a descendant of Serbian despots. It is also stated that he is of Bosnian origin. Due to his height, he was nicknamed "Tavîl" or "Long" in Ottoman history.

He received his primary education from his uncle, who was a priest at the Mileşeva Monastery, a literary center among Bosnian monasteries. While here, he worked as an assistant priest. Yayabaşı Yeşilce, who was assigned to collect devshirme from Bosnia in the first years of the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, was liked by Mehmed Bey and enlisted as devsirme to be taken to the palace (Şefik Efendi, vr. 16 a-b ). It is known that the Sokolovic family had previously received devsirme. The most important of these is Deli Hüsrev Pasha, who was brought to the palace twenty years ago. According to sources, his family did not want to send their sons as devshirme, but Mehmed Bey convinced them by saying that their sons' future was very bright and that the bird of state was placed on their heads ( ibid. , vr. 16 b -17 b ). Sokullu Mehmed Pasha told the Venetian ambassador Marc-Antonio Tiepolo in 1576 that he was an eighteen-year-old young man who was assigned to read hymns out loud during meals in the monastery when he was recruited (Samarćić, pp. 8-9).

When it was brought to Edirne, it was presented to Suleiman the Magnificent, who came here after seeing off Grand Vizier Damad Ibrahim Pasha to Egypt and stayed for about ten months, along with forty children gathered from well-known families in Bosnia. Then he started his education in the Edirne palace. Meanwhile, he took the name Mehmed and was included in the inner circle of the Edirne Palace. After his education at Edirne Palace, he was assigned to the entourage of Defterdar İskender Pasha, probably one of the leading statesmen of the period. After the Defterdar was killed during the Irakeyn Campaign, he was taken to Enderun. He first served in the small room, and from there he moved to the inner treasury. Then he became rikâbdar, çuhadar, şilâhdar, çaşnigîrbaşı and grand doorkeeper respectively (Şefik Efendi, vr. 18 b -19 a ).

He brought his father, his middle brother, and his uncle, who was introduced to him as his younger brother, to Istanbul through Ahmed Bey, who was assigned to collect the Bosnian jizya while he was an armed man. His father converted to Islam and took the name Cemaleddin Sinan. The older of the two other children, his full brother, was named Mustafa. When Mustafa died a few years later, his name was given to the youngest child. After a while, Mehmed Agha brought his mother and his younger brother, whom he learned was still living in the village, to Istanbul. Although this child was given to the Ibrahim Pasha Palace, he did not live long. After the death of Barbaros Hayreddin Pasha on 6 Cemâziyelevvel 953 (5 July 1546), Sokullu was appointed as the captain of the admiralty and went to the countryside. During the second Iranian campaign of Suleiman the Magnificent, he was appointed as the governor of Rumelia on 24 Rabi al-Awwal 956 (April 22, 1549), replacing Semiz Ali Pasha, who was appointed as the governor of Egypt with vizierate (Emecen - Şahin, p. 23 [1998], p. 96). He appeared before the sultan on 3 Rajab 956 (July 28, 1549) and began his new duty, and participated in the military operation that would last until the end of the year. His rapid rise shows that he entered the sultan's inner circle while he was in the palace and gained the trust of Suleiman the Magnificent.

When the problems experienced in Transylvania after the Persian expedition and the turmoil caused by the monk Georg Martinuzzi, the guardian of the young King of Transylvania, Yanosh, made a new Ottoman expedition necessary, the command of the operation was given to him as the Rumelian governor. The Ottoman army crossed the Danube on 6 Ramadan 958 (7 September 1551), despite Martinuzzi's efforts to stall through diplomatic channels. Crossing the Tisa River from the vicinity of Titel, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha captured many large and small castles, forts and piers, especially Beçe (Bećse), Beçkerek, Çanad and Lipova (Lippa/Lipva), and besieged Tımışvar, the main headquarters of the Austro-Hungarian forces. Due to the determined resistance of the defenders under the command of Stefan Losanczy and the cold weather, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha, who lifted the siege of Timyshvar on 17 Zilkade (16 November), retreated to Belgrade to winter quarters.

Fighting continued in the winter and, with Martinuzzi's support, Lipova fell back into Austrian hands. In the spring, the command of the Transylvania operation was given to the second vizier, Kara Ahmed Pasha, and Rumelia Beylerbeyi Sokullu Mehmed Pasha was ordered to join the serdar. Serdar Vizier Ahmed Pasha, who united with Sokullu's forces in Belgrade on 21 Cemâziyelevvel 959 (15 May 1552), conquered Tımışvar as a result of a siege that lasted from 6 Rajab (28 June) to 4 Şaban (26 July). According to a rumor, during the last attack on the castle, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha's horse was killed by a rifle bullet, but Mehmed Pasha mounted another horse and continued the war (Altınay, p. 10). After the conquest of Tımışvar, the Ottoman army captured castles such as Lipova, Solimos, Solnok (Szolnok) and besieged Eğri on 20 Ramadan (9 September). When the castle could not be taken during the siege that lasted until 1 Dhu al-Qa'da (19 October), Sokullu Mehmed Pasha retired to Belgrade to winter quarters with the army.

While the Ottomans were busy on the Western borders, the Safavid Ruler Shah Tahmasb's threat to the security of Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia and Baghdad led to a new Ottoman-Iranian war. Before embarking on his third Iranian expedition, known as the Nakhchivan expedition, Rumelian Beylerbeyi Sokullu Mehmed He ordered Pasha to go to Anatolia and winter in Tokat. Sokullu Mehmed Pasha, who spent the winter of 960 (1553) in Tokat, joined the army regiment held around Suşehri on June 5, 1554, and participated in the operation with the sultan's entourage, which lasted until July 30 and resulted in the destruction of Nakhchivan. When the Ottoman army arrived around Erzurum on its return from the campaign, news came that Shah Tahmasb had attacked in the Çoruh region. Thereupon, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha was sent to Oltu under the command of Grand Vizier Kara Ahmed Pasha, including the Rumelian troops and the governors of Damascus and Karaman (September 6). When it was learned that the Shah had resigned, he returned to Erzurum (September 21). Accepting a Safavid ambassador requesting peace, Suleiman the Magnificent granted Sokullu Mehmed Pasha the position of vizier on the same day and made him the fourth vizier (Lokmân b. Hüseyin, vr. 72 a ). In a document, his appointment as vizier is shown as 25 Şevval 961 (23 September 1554) ( BA, A.RSK , nr. 1453, p. 16). While Suleiman the Magnificent was in Amasya, on May 10, 1555, when a Safavid embassy delegation came to Amasya with a request for peace, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha participated in the peace negotiations and gave a banquet to the ambassador by the order of the sultan. Although he was assigned to discipline the rebels in the rebellion of Düzmece Prince Mustafa upon his return from the expedition, the troops of Prince Bayezid, who was left under the protection of Rumelia, captured Düzmece Mustafa and suppressed the rebellion before Sokullu reached Edirne (Busbecq, p. 80-86). After returning to Istanbul, Sokullu became the third vizier after the Grand Vizier Kara Ahmed Pasha was killed on 13 Zilkade 962 (29 September 1555) and the second vizier Ibrahim Pasha retired due to his age. While in this position, he reopened the Serbian church in Peja in 1557 and appointed his brother Makarije as patriarch (Samarćić, pp. 71-82).

The struggle between Prince Selim and Prince Bayezid was a turning point in the career of Sokullu Mehmed Pasha. Wanting to end the tension that was increasing day by day between his two sons, Suleiman the Magnificent sent Sokullu Mehmed Pasha to Prince Selim and the fourth vizier Pertev Pasha to Prince Bayezid, with a royal line for advice. After Prince Bayezid left Amasya with his army and came to Ankara in April 1559, Suleiman the Magnificent sent him to Konya with some forces to help Prince Selim. Mehmed Pasha played an important role in Prince Selim's victory in the war fought between the princes in the Konya plain on 21 Şaban 966 (29 May 1559). While he was advancing to Sivas with Prince Selim to capture the defeated prince, he received the news that Prince Bayezid had taken refuge in Iran, and by the order of the sultan, he spent the winter of 1559-1560 in Aleppo.

After Rüstem Pasha died on 28 Şevval 968 (12 July 1561) and was replaced by Semiz Ali Pasha, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha became the second vizier. His marriage to Prince Selim's daughter İsmihan (Esmâhan) Sultan in 1562 further strengthened Sokullu's position. He was promoted to grand vizier upon the death of Semiz Ali Pasha on 30 Zilkade 972 (29 June 1565). When Sokullu Mehmed Pasha was appointed to this position, the siege of Malta was continuing. Additionally, the death of Austrian Emperor Ferdinand in 1564 and the death of II. Negotiations were continuing regarding the renewal of the peace treaty made in 1562 due to Maximilian's accession to the throne and Szatmár, which was captured by King Yanos of Transylvania, who was subject to the Ottomans. Unlike his predecessor, the new grand vizier was not in favor of peace with Austria. Ottoman forces in Hungary were transferred to Transylvania. When no results were obtained from the negotiations between the two sides, the Ottoman army started preparations for the campaign.

When Suleiman the Magnificent went on his last expedition on 11 Shawwal 973 (1 May 1566), Grand Vizier Sokullu Mehmed Pasha was with him. Sokullu Mehmed Pasha undertook the siege of Sigetvar Castle, which started on 7 August 1566. Due to the sultan's illness, all responsibility for the siege of Sigetvar, which lasted about a month, fell on him. He spent many nights in the trenches with the soldiers, and once his life was saved at the last moment by the secret secretary Feridun Ahmed Bey. Finally, on September 5, Ottoman soldiers began to enter through a breach opened in the castle body. Seeing that there was no possibility of defense, castle commander Miklós Zrínyi retreated to the inner castle. Thereupon, the inner castle was surrounded and its walls were set on fire. While Sigetvar was about to fall completely, Suleiman the Magnificent passed away on the night of 6-7 September. In such a case, if the news of the sultan's death spread among the soldiers, a month's worth of effort could be wasted. Sokullu Mehmed Pasha ordered those who were aware of the sultan's death to keep it a secret. Ottoman soldiers, who repelled Zrínyi's Huruç movement on September 7, captured the inner castle in a short time. Sokullu Mehmed Pasha immediately sent a letter along with the conquest to Prince Selim in Kütahya, stating that his father had died. From now on, the sultan ran the affairs as if he were alive. He kept this secret for three weeks until Prince Selim came. He announced the sultan's death when he approached Belgrade and calmed the soldiers with his impressive words. He managed to overcome this dangerous situation with the careful policy he followed and the measures he took. However, he could not convince the soldiers in Belgrade who could not accept the fact that the enthronement was not given and who blocked the sultan's path when he came to Istanbul. Perhaps he acted this way specifically to make the new sultan feel that he was indispensable and his political influence. As a matter of fact, the situation was calmed down by making the sultan promise to accept the tips and raises.

II. After Selim came to the throne, he would not interfere much in the administration of the state and would leave the affairs to him. However, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha had to deal with strong rivals from time to time in order to maintain his position and he followed the policies of the Suleiman period. Although the project of opening a canal in Suez, which had been considered in previous periods in order to pursue a more active policy in India, was brought to the agenda again, this could not go beyond an attempt. The relations with Indian Muslims that started during the time of Suleiman the Magnificent continued. Aceh Sultan Alâeddin Riâyet Shah was promised that a fleet would be sent under the command of Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis to be used against the Portuguese. However, when this fleet could not be sent due to the events in Yemen, two aid ships carrying 500 Turkish soldiers, including cannon casters, artillerymen and engineers, several heavy bronze cannons and various war supplies arrived in Aceh in 1567. Ottoman rule, which was shaken by the rebellion of Imam Mutahhar in Yemen that started in 1567, was re-established in 1570 with the activities of Koca Sinan Pasha, which lasted two years. Sokullu Mehmed Pasha could not realize the project of connecting the Don and Volga rivers with a canal, which was first brought to the agenda in 1563. Kasım Pasha, who was assigned to the Astarkhan expedition regarding this task, was unsuccessful (1569). Meanwhile, when Sokullu's rivals, especially Lala Mustafa Pasha, organized an expedition to Cyprus despite his opposition, all the attention and energy of the empire was directed to the Mediterranean.

Sokullu Mehmed Pasha did not want the Cyprus expedition because it would put the Ottomans in danger of a Crusade and if the conquest was achieved, new rivals would emerge. But this time he could not break Lala Mustafa Pasha's influence on the sultan. However, his predictions were correct and the Crusader fleet, which could not prevent the conquest of Cyprus, destroyed almost the entire Ottoman fleet in Lepanto. While the celebrations were continuing in Italy, the grand vizier appointed Uluç Ali Pasha as captain and assigned him to collect the dispersed navy. He started the construction of a new navy. A feverish activity was undertaken to build new ships in all Ottoman shipyards from Istanbul to Alanya. Indeed, as a result of the great work done that winter, the Ottoman navy was rebuilt. Faced with this situation, the French ambassador sent a letter to King IX on May 8, 1572. In his letter to Charles, he said: “I would never believe in the power of this monarchy if I had not had the opportunity to see it with my own eyes and evaluate it. "But really, not a single day goes by that I don't encounter new effects," he wrote. In June, this navy sailed to the Mediterranean. After this incident, the allies could not recover again, and Venice signed an agreement with the Ottoman Empire in 1573, accepting the conquest of Cyprus and paying compensation. In 1574, an Ottoman fleet led by Koca Sinan Pasha and Kılıç Ali Pasha captured Halkulvâdî after a thirty-three-day siege and expelled the Spanish from Tunisia.

The Grand Vizier also closely followed and directed the developments in Poland's domestic politics during this period. In 1572, King of Poland II. After Zygmunt's death without an heir, the conflict for the Polish throne began, and the Russians' deployment of troops there caused Sokullu to take a direct interest in Polish affairs. Poland was seen as a buffer zone against the Habsburgs and Russia. The accession of an anti-Ottoman to the Polish throne would mean that Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania would be in danger. Initially, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha was in favor of choosing one of the Polish lords. However, when France also intervened in the incident and nominated Henry de Valois, the brother of the French king, he deemed it appropriate to support him. With the pressure and advice he put on the Polish lords and bishops, Henry was elected king of Poland. However, with Henry's departure to ascend to the throne of France in 1574, Poland was left headless again. Thereupon, Sokullu had Transylvania Voivode Stephan Báthory elected king here. Thus, the Ottoman influence in Poland was fully established.

Sokullu Mehmed Pasha, II. When Selim died, he concealed the sultan's death and ensured the enthronement of Prince Murad in Manisa, who was worried that one of his brothers in the palace would ascend to the throne. III. When Murad came to Istanbul, he kept the old vizier in his place. However, III. During the reign of Murad, it became difficult for him to maintain his position and the activities against him gradually increased. As a result of the suggestions made to the sultan by his enemies, his former authority gradually diminished. Their rivals declared war on Iran in 1578, despite the opposition of the grand vizier. They started to get state affairs done by contacting the sultan directly. The Grand Vizier was excluded even from appointments and other matters within his authority.

Feridun Ahmed Bey, one of Sokullu's closest men, was dismissed from marksmanship in 1576, and his vassal Hüsrev Ağa and his chief doorman Sinan Ağa were also removed from him. Additionally, his uncle's son, Budin Beylerbeyisi Mustafa Pasha, was executed in 1578. On the other hand, the conflict for the position of grand vizier accelerated, especially between Lala Mustafa Pasha and Koca Sinan Pasha, and in a way, this fierce struggle was the main reason for his leaving his office. It seems that despite all the pressures, III paid attention to the balance. Sokullu Mehmed Pasha, who maintained his position under the influence of Murad, continued to follow a policy of keeping the Ottomans away from new conflicts in the east and west. In 1577, the peace treaty with Austria was renewed, the existing peace with Venice was maintained, and the first English ambassadors who came to Istanbul to request commercial privileges were treated well.

One day, while he was in trouble in the state administration, a dervish who came to the afternoon council in his mansion pretended to give a petition to Sokullu Mehmed Pasha, took a dagger from his bosom and stabbed him in the heart. The old grand vizier, who was seriously injured, died a short time later (20 Şaban 987 / 12 October 1579). The person who killed Sokullu was apparently a Bosnian who complained about the reduction of his timar. [ https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamza_Orlovi%C4%87 Hamza Orlović] However, some researchers emphasize that the Hamzawis played a role in the assassination. The sheikh of the sect, Hamza Bâlî, was executed in Istanbul years before the assassination. It is said that the dervish killed Sokullu to avenge the sheikh. In addition, even though he was not very powerful, he wanted to get rid of the grand vizier. There are allegations that Murad was also behind the assassination (Schweigger, pp. 99-100). His tomb is in Eyüp. Ferrier III, the French ambassador in Venice. In a report he sent to Henri on 28 November 1579, it was stated that the real reason for this murder was the religious indifference he displayed before the murder, and that the murderer in question and many other accomplices accused him of being a Christian. It is also noted that he had a brother (nephew) who was a Christian clergyman and received many gifts from him, and that he was generally very protective of Christians and prevented war against Christian states in any case.

According to sources, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha was a statesman who had great intelligence and skill, an extraordinary memory, non-stop mobility, lived a measured and orderly lifestyle, and easily mastered even the most difficult tasks. With his intelligence and many years of experience in state affairs, he was able to make quick and precise decisions. In his conversations with foreign ambassadors, he would listen to them calmly and listen to their requests, avoid using hasty or insulting expressions, and use such words in a soft tone when necessary. Venetian ambassador Tiepolo says that when talking to the grand vizier, one gets the feeling that one is talking to a Christian ruler rather than a Turk. Many books have been dedicated to Sokullu, who looked after the scholars. His sons are Kurd Bey, Hasan Pasha and Ibrahim Khan. The first of them died before him. Sokullu's lineage continues in two branches. One from her first husband, Hasan Pasha, the other from II. It comes from Ibrahim Khan, Selim's son from his daughter Ismihan Sultan. This second branch was called the Ibrahim Hanzades and was frequently brought up when an alternative to the Ottoman dynasty was sought.

Sokullu Mehmed Pasha's position as vizier to three sultans and his widespread fame led to the emergence of many legends about him. In some Ottoman sources, it is stated that he was interested in history and desired to be a martyr, just like Murad Hudâvendigâr. Serbian and Bosnian sources include stories about him that are reflected in folk legends and folk songs (Zirojevic, p. 4 [1984], pp. 56-67). In German sources, his great power, endless wealth and many good deeds are mentioned.

Sokullu Mehmed Pasha, who acquired a great fortune during his long tenure as grand vizier, had many charitable works built. The mosque he built in Azapkapı, also known as Azapkapı Mosque, and the mosque he built in Kadırga; social complex consisting of a madrasah, fountain and lodges; The social complex in Eyüp, consisting of a madrasah, darülkurra, fountain and tomb; The mosque he built in Büyükçekmece, also known as Köprübaşı Mosque; The social complex he built in Lüleburgaz, consisting of a mosque, madrasah, primary school, arasta, caravanserai, double bath, soup kitchen and bridge; The complex consisting of a mosque, bath, madrasah, caravanserai and arasta that he built in Dörtyol Payas, Hatay province; The complex consisting of a mosque, madrasah, lodge, soup kitchen, double bath, arasta, fountain, primary school and bridge, which he built in Havsa on the Edirne road; An inn in Antakya and a social complex consisting of a soup kitchen, a mosque, an inn, a fountain, a bridge and a darülkurra in Erdel Beçkerek can be mentioned. Sokullu also built a bath in Edirne, Mecca and Medina, some of which have not survived to the present day, a soup kitchen, a palace and a caravanserai in Sarajevo, and bridges in Kırklareli, Trebinye (Arslanağa), Visegrad and Tekirdağ. His palace near Hagia Sophia and his palaces in Kadırga, Halkalı and outside Istanbul have not survived until today.

Note: Mehmed-paša Sokolović and patriarch Makarije Sokolović were not brothers, maybe cousins.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Şefik Efendi, Cevâhirü'l-menâkıb , Süleymaniye Ktp., Esad Efendi, no. 2583, type.location.

Feridun Ahmed Bey, Nüzhetü'l-esrâri'l-ahbâr der Sefer-i Sigetvar , TSMK, Treasury, no. 1339, type.location.

Bostan Çelebi, Süleymanname , Süleymaniye Ktp., Hagia Sophia, no. 3317, vr. 69 b -73 a .

Âlî Mustafa Efendi, Künhü'l-ahbâr , İÜ Ktp., TY, no. 5959, type.location.

Selânikî, Târih (İpşirli) , I, 91-94.

Luqman b. Hüseyin, Zübdetü't-tevârîh , TİEM Ktp., no. 1973, vr. 71 b -95 a .

Pechuylu Ibrahim, Târih , I, type.yer.

Târîh-i Âl-i Osman (ed. Mustafa Karazeybek, master's thesis, 1994), IU Institute of Social Sciences, p. 445-446, 458.

Hoca-zade Mehmed Efendi's İbtihâcü't-tevârîh (ed. Ahmet Akgün, doctoral thesis, 1995), IU Institute of Social Sciences, p. 225-275.

Hadîkatü'l-vüzerâ , p. 32-34.

S. Schweigger, Journey to the City of Sultans: 1578-1581 (ed. H. Stein, trans. S. Türkis Noyan), Istanbul 2004, type.location.

OG de Busbecq, This Is How I Saw Turkey (trans. Aysel Kurutluoğlu), Istanbul, ts. (Tercüman 1001 Basic Works), p. 80-86.

S. Gerlach, Türkiye Diary 1573-1576, 1577-1578 (ed. Kemal Beydili, trans. T. Noyan), İstanbul 2007, I-II, see. Index.

Zinkeisen, Geschichte , II, 914-936; III, 92-570.

N. Jorga, History of the Ottoman Empire (trans. Nilüfer Epçeli), İstanbul 2005, II, 39-50, 60-64, 219-223.

Ahmet Refik Altınay, Sokollu (ed. İbrahim Delioğlu), Istanbul 2001.

Danişmend, Chronology , II, 202-203, 206-209, 217-218, 263-264, 267-277.

Uzunçarşılı, Ottoman History , II, 393-397, 409-420, 549; III/1, p. 42-44, 51-52.

A. Nimet Kurat, Turkey and the Volga , Ankara 1966, type.location.

Kemal Beydili, Die polnischen Königswahlen und Interregnen von 1572 und 1576 im Lichte osmanischer Archivalien: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der osmanischen Machtpolitik , München 1976, type.yer.

Radovan Samarćić, The Man Who Holds the World in His Hands: Sokollu Mehmed Pasha (trans. Meral Gaspiralı), Istanbul 1995.

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Halil İnalcık, Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire: 1300-1600 (trc. Halil Berktay), Istanbul 2000, I, 388-391.

a.mlf., “The Origin of the Ottoman-Russian Rivalry and the Don-Volga Canal Attempt (1569)”, TTK Belleten , XII/46 (1948), p. 349-402.

İsmail Hakkı Göksoy, “Turkish Traces in Southeast Asian Islamic Countries”, Turks (ed. Hasan Celal Güzel et al.), Ankara 2002, IX, 619-632.

Abdurrahman Şeref, “Some Information About Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's Households and His Family-Cevâhirü'l-menâkıb”, TOEM , V/29 (1330), p. 257-265.

M. Tayyib Gökbilgin, “Reasons and Preparations for the 1566 Szigetvar Expedition of Suleiman the Magnificent”, TD , p. 21 (1966), p. 1-14.

a.mlf., “Mehmed Pasha”, İA , VII, 595-605.

Razaulhak Shah, “Letter of Sultan Alaeddin, Sultan of Achi, to Suleiman the Magnificent”, TAD , V/8-9 (1967), p. 373-409.

O. Ziroyevic, “Mehmed Pascha Sokolli im Lichte Jugoslawischer Quellen und Überlieferungen”, Osm.Ar. , p. 4 (1984), p. 56-67.

Tülay Artan, “The Kadirga Palace Shrouded by the Mists of Time”, Turcica , XXVI, Paris 1994, p. 124.

Feridun Emecen – İlhan Şahin, “Sancak Tevcîh Register Dated 957-958 (1550-1551) from the Sources of the Ottoman Provincial Organization”, TTK Belgeler , p. 23 (1998), p. 96.

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https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed-pa%C5%A1a_Sokolovi%C4%87

Mehmed-paša Sokolović (Sokolovići pokraj Rudog, 1505. ili 1506. – Istanbul, 11. listopada 1579.), jedan je od velikih bosansko-osmanskih vojskovođa.[1]

Životopis

Most Mehmed-paše Sokolovića u Višegradu

Džamija u rodnim Sokolovićima pokraj Rudog

Kozja ćuprija u Sarajevu

Džamija Mehmed-paše Sokolovića u Istanbulu
Mehmed-paša Sokolović, kao dječak (prema jednom izvoru, kršteno mu je ime bilo Bajica), bio je od Osmanlija 1516. oduzet roditeljima u mjestu Sokolovići pokraj Rudog. Odveden je u Edirne, gdje je prešao na Islam, te školovan kao janjičar.[2]

Mehmed-pašin otac Dimitrije postao je Džemaludin Sinan-beg. Ubrzo po dolasku Mehmed-pašinog oca u Istanbul, za njim je stigla i pašina majka koja se, kako je ostalo zabilježeno, zastidjela "kad je vidjela sjaj, dostojanstvo i veliku moć njenog sina", dok se sestra Mehmed-paše Sokolovića udala za Sinan-pašu Boljanića, sandžak-bega bosanskog i hercegovačkog ejaleta.[3]

Mehmed-paša Sokolović se Istaknuo u Mohačkoj bitki (1526.) i opsadi Beča (1529.). U same vrhove osmanske hijerarhije ušao je nakon smrti utemeljitelja osmanske mornarice kapudan-paše Hajreddina Barbarosse (1546.), kad ga je sultan Sulejman I. Veličanstveni imenovao njegovim nasljednikom na admiralskom položaju. U tri godine obnašanja te dužnosti utemeljio je osmanski mornarički arsenal. Nakon toga, povjeren mu je Rumelijski beglerbegluk, u doba kad je trebalo osvojiti temišvarski Banat (1551. – 1552.). Sudjelovao je u pohodu protiv Perzije, te je zbog zasluga 1555. dobio položaj trećeg vezira, a 1561. drugog vezira, nakon što je ugušio pobunu princa Bajazita. Veliki vezir postao je 1565., u pripremi pohoda protiv Maksimilijana II., koji je zaustavljen kraj Sigeta zbog dugotrajnogotpora snaga Nikole Šubića Zrinskog (1566.). U toj opsadi umro je Sulejman I. Veličanstveni, a Mehmed-paša Sokolović imao je odlučujući utjecaj u prijenosu vlasti na njegova sina i svojega tasta Selima II. (1566. – 1574.). U tom je razdoblju Mehmed-paša Sokolović bio gotovo neograničeni gospodar Osmanskog Carstva. Zahvaljujući njemu ublažene su posljedice poraza kraj Lepanta (1571.), jer je u godini dana uspio obnoviti osmansku mornaricu i diplomatskim umijećem stabilizirati granice.[4] Učvrstio je osmansku vlast u Moldaviji i Vlaškoj, skršio pobunu u Jemenu te osvojio Cipar. Premda je u pomorskoj bitki pokraj Lepanta 1571. osmanska flota doživjela težak poraz u srazu s brodovljem Svete lige, za nepunih godinu dana obnovio je osmansku flotu te prisilio Mletačku Republiku da prizna Osmanskomu Carstvu vrhovnu vlast nad istočnim Sredozemljem. Također je ojačao stegu u vojsci, radio na razvijanju prosvjete, književnosti i umjetnosti, planirao radove na probijanju Sueskoga kanala i kanala Don–Volga.[1] Manje uspješan bio je u provođenju unutarnjih promjena i prilagođavanju Carstva uvelike drukčijem svijetu druge polovine 16. st. Nakon dolaska na vlast sultana Murata III. (1574. – 1596.), Mehmed-pašina je moć bila sve ograničenija. Ubijen je u svojem dvoru.[5]

Džamija Mehmed-paše Sokolovića u Lüleburgazu

Most na Žepi

Mezar Mehmed-paše Sokolovića u Istanbulu
Ukopan je pokraj Ejub Sultan džamije u Istanbulu, koja je dobila ime po ashabu Ejubu el-Ensariju, navodno ukopanom u haremu ove džamije. Jedan od mitova u vezi s ubojstvom Mehmed-paše Sokolovića jeste i taj da ga je ubio izvjesni Orlović, kako bi osvetio svog bosanskog rođaka Hamzu Orlovića, kojeg je smaknuo upravo Mehmed-paša. Navodno je narodna izreka da se "u Bosni ne podnose orlovi i sokolovi" nastala nakon Mehmed-pašine smrti.[6]

Brojne ustanove u Turskoj su nazvane po Mehmed-paši Sokoloviću, a na Ejupu, dijelu Istanbula gdje se nalazi njegov mezar, na mjestu nekadašnje medrese Mehmed-paše, koju je izgradio njegov graditelj Mimar Sinan, nalazi se medicinski centar. Inače Mimar Sinan je najpoznatiji i jedan od najvećih graditelja u povijesti Osmanskog Carstva. Podizao je brojne zadužbine i vakufe širom Carstva, a u svom je rodnom selu Sokolovićima kod Rudog izgradio džamiju. Podigao je tri do pet mostova na prostoru Bosne i jedan na prostoru Crne Gore: most na Drini u Višegradu, Arslanagića most u Trebinju, Vezirov most u Podgorici, most na ušću Žepe u Drinu i Kozju ćupriju u Sarajevu. Najpoznatiji je Most Mehmed-paše Sokolovića na Drini, središnji motiv romana Na Drini ćuprija poznatog bosanskohercegovačkog pisca i nobelovca Ive Andrića.[7] Nema podataka da je Mehmed-paša Sokolović gradio kršćanske objekte po Bosni.

Kontroverze
Naime, Mehmed-paša Sokolović je jedna od rijetkih povijesnih ličnosti prema kojem simpatije gaje i Bošnjaci i neki Srbi, smatrajući ga velikim vezirom bošnjačkog ili srpskog podrijetla. Tako će se čitati o ovoj ličnosti kao velikom veziru bošnjačkog porijekla, u okviru opće nekritičke simpatije prema svemu osmanskom kod Bošnjaka, dok će isti Mehmed-paša biti Srbin u knjizi Milenka Vukićevića Znameniti Srbi muslimani, a Emir Kusturica mu je podigao spomenik u Višegradu kao pozitivnoj srpskoj ličnosti, iako su neki srpski historiografi nastojali ukazati na mitove o dobrodušnosti ovog Srbina prema svojim sunarodnjacima. Ovaj odnos prema Mehmed-paši je vrlo interesantan uzimajući u obzir srpsku historiografiju usmjerenu protiv Osmanlija, naročito u političkom smislu.[8]

Postoji mišljenje da je veliki vezir Mehmed-paša Sokolović obnovio Pećku patrijašiju 1557. godine, što nije točno, jer je takve odluke mogao donositi samo sultan, u ovom slučaju sultan Sulejman I. Veličanstveni, eventualno veliki vezir, ali to tada nije bio Mehmed-paša Sokolović. Obnova Pećke patrijaršije je bila tako velika državnička odluka da Mehmed-paša Sokolović nije mogao da je donese. Često se zaboravlja da je on u to doba bio samo rumelijski beglerbeg, komandant mornarice, treći vezir, a da će veliki vezir, drugi čovjek carstva, postati tek tijekom posljednje godine vladavine sultana Sulejmana I. Veličanstvenog, 1565. godine, dakle osam godina od obnavljanja Pećke patrijaršije. S druge strane, Mehmed-paša Sokolović i patrijarh Makarije Sokolović nisu bili braća, možda rođaci.[9]

• https://seesrpska.com/bajica-nenadic-od-milesevskog-djaka-do-veliko...
• https://www.visegradlive.com/kako-je-bajica-nenadic-postao-veliki-v...
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330028591_Case_Study_-_The...
• https://leksikon.muzej-marindrzic.eu/sokolovic-mehmed-pasa-sokollu-...
• https://enciklopedija.hr/clanak/sokolovic-mehmed-pasa
• https://povijest.hr/vazneosobe/mehmed-pasa-sokolovic/
• https://stil.kurir.rs/lifestyle/zanimljivosti/200813/ko-je-bio-mehm...
• https://faktor.ba/bosna-i-hercegovina/kultura/mehmed-pasa-sokolovic...
• http://islamicartsmagazine.com/magazine/view/sokollu_mehmet_pasha_a...
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mehmed-Pasa-Sokollu
• Online Google Books